The Project Gutenberg eBook of Punctuation, by Frederick W. Hamilton

This book, like the others in this Part, makes no pretense at originality. The author has studied and compared a considerable number of works by the best authorities on the subject and has endeavored to adapt the best of their contents to the use of printers’ apprentices.Every author has his own set of rules. At first sight, each set appears inconsistent with those given by other writers. This inconsistency, however, is generally more apparent than real. It arises from differences in point of view, method of approach, and system of classification.

An attempt has been made to compile from these sources a set of rules which would bring before the pupil a correct and comprehensive view of the best current usage, well illustrated by examples and accompanied by practical typographical hints. The fact has been kept steadily in mind that this book is intended for a certain definite class of pupils and no pains have been spared to fit it to their needs.

Any treatise consisting, as this one necessarily does, mainly of rules is practically useful only as a basis for constant and persistent drill. It is, of course, valuable for reference, but the emergencies of the day’s work leave no time for consultation. These rules must be learned, and not only learned but assimilated so that their correct application becomes instinctive and instantaneous. This result can be secured only by practice. Hence the emphasis laid on the exercises indicated in the paragraphs introductory to the review questions.

INTRODUCTION

Punctuation is a device by which we aid words to tell their story. Words have done this at times without such aid, and may now do so, but at constant risk of serious misunderstanding. This can be easily seen by reading the following lines printed as they would have been written in an ancient manuscript.

WETHEPEOPLEOFTHEUNITEDSTATES
INORDERTOFORMAMOREPERFECT
UNIONESTABLISHJUSTICEINSUREDO
MESTICTRANQUILITYPROVIDEFOR
THECOMMONDEFENCEPROMOTETHE
GENERALWELFAREANDSECURETHE
BLESSINGSOFLIBERTYTOOURSELVES
ANDOURPOSTERITYDOORDAINAND
ESTABLISHTHISCONSTITUTIONFOR
THEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA

Probably this particular passage could be read without danger of serious misunderstanding. The two well-known passages which follow, however, are cases where either a simple statement may become a ridiculous travesty or a serious arraignment may become a eulogy by punctuation.

Punctuate the following in two ways: one to represent a very bad man, and the other a very good man:

He is an old man and experienced in vice and wickedness he is never found in opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight in the downfall of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of his fellow-creatures he is always ready to assist in destroying the peace of society he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord he is uncommonly diligent in sowing discord among his friends and acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause of Christianity he has not been negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize all public teachers he makes no effort to subdue his evil passions he strives hard to build up satans kingdom he lends no aid to the support of the gospel among the heathen he contributes largely to the devil he will never go to heaven he must go where he will receive the just recompense of reward.

Punctuation being intended for the sole purpose of making the text intelligible and removing as many of the causes of possible misunderstanding as may be, must depend in the last resort on a correct understanding of the text. This understanding may be obtained from the text itself, from the context, that is, the writing as a whole, or from outside knowledge about the matter under consideration.

The meaning of this sentence depends entirely on the presence or absence of the two commas.

Manuscript comes in to the printer hastily written by the customer, author, or a reporter, or ticked over the telegraph wire, and there is little or no punctuation. Probably the context will supply the needed information and the line may be set up correctly. If there is no way of finding out [3] what the sentence means, follow copy. Insert no punctuation marks which you are not sure are needed.

Punctuation as we know it is of recent invention. The practice of the art of printing brought the necessity for a defined and systematized use of the points which had, most of them, long been in existence, but which had been used largely according to the personal preferences of the scribes or copyists. With the coming of the new methods of book reproduction came the recognized need for standardization and systematization.

The most ancient inscriptions and manuscripts are merely strings of letters, without spacing between words or sentences and without any points of any sort, like the example on page 1.

The first mark to be used was the dot, or period. Its original purpose was simply to furnish a resting place for the eye and the mind and so help a little in the grouping of the letters into words, clauses, and sentences, which the mind had hitherto been compelled to do unaided. It was used at the end of a sentence, at the end of a clause, to indicate abbreviations, to separate crowded words, especially where the sense was ambiguous ( ANICEMAN might be either AN ICE MAN or A NICE MAN ), or even as an æsthetic ornament between the letters of an inscription. In early manuscripts the period is usually placed high (˙) instead of low (.).

Sometimes a slanting mark (/) or a double dot (: or ..) was used to indicate the end of an important section of the writing or even of a sentence.

After a time spaces were introduced to show the grouping of the letters and the words. At first the sentences were separated by spaces, then the long words, and finally all words. In some languages, as in Italian, there are still combinations of long and short words, such as the combination of the pronoun with the verb, as in datemi , give me.

During the manuscript period different schools of copyists and even different individuals used different marks and different systems of pointing. For a considerable time the location of the dot indicated its force. Placed high (˙) it [4] had the force of a period. Placed in a middle position (·) it had the force of a comma. Placed low (.) it had the force of a semicolon. The rule, however, was not universally observed. A Latin manuscript of the seventh century has a high dot (˙) equivalent to a comma, a semicolon used as at present, and a dot accompanied by another dot or a dash to indicate the end of a sentence. A Latin manuscript of the ninth century shows the comma and an inverted semicolon ([;]) having a value between the semicolon and colon. Mediæval manuscript pointing, therefore, approximates modern forms in places, but lacks standardization into recognized systems.

The spread of printing brought new needs into prominence. The early printers used the period at the end of the sentence, the colon, and sometimes the slanting line (/). A reversed semicolon was used as a question mark. Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton’s successor in the printing business in London, used five points in 1509. They were the period, the semicolon, the comma, the “interrogative,” and the parenthesis.

The systematization of punctuation is due mainly to the careful and scholarly Aldus Manutius, who had opened a printing office in Venice in 1494. The great printers of the early day were great scholars as well. For a very long time the chief concern of the printer was the opening of the treasures of ancient thought to the world. They were therefore compelled to be the students, critics, and editors of the old manuscripts which served them as copy. They naturally took their punctuation from the Greek grammarians, but sometimes with changed meanings. The semicolon, for instance, is the Greek mark of interrogation.

The period took its name from the Greek word περίοδος , periodos, meaning a division of a sentence or a thought, as we to-day speak of an orator’s eloquent periods.

The comma comes from the Greek κόμμα , komma, from κόπτειν , to cut.

The question mark was made by writing the first and last letters of the Latin word questio , a question, vertically,

The exclamation point was made by writing the letters of the Latin word Io , joy, vertically,

Other important marks used by printers, but not, strictly speaking, marks of punctuation, are fully discussed in the volume on Abbreviations and Signs (No. 37) in this series.

There are two systems of punctuation in use, known respectively as the close and open systems. The close, or stiff, system, using points wherever they can be used, is of importance in precise composition of every sort, such as laws, contracts, legal and ecclesiastical statements, and the like. The open, or easy, system, omitting points wherever they can be omitted, is used generally in the commoner forms of composition. The tendency, sometimes pushed too far, is toward an extremely open style of punctuation. The general attitude of writers and printers may be summed up by saying that you must justify the use of a punctuation mark, particularly a comma, rather than its omission.

But why should the printer bother himself about punctuation at all? Is that not the business of the author, the editor, and the proofreader? Strictly speaking, yes, but authors generally neglect punctuation, copy is not usually carefully edited before going to the compositor, and proofreader’s corrections are expensive. It is therefore important that the compositor should be intelligent about punctuation, whether he works in a large or a small office.

The question of how far the printer may go in changing or supplying the punctuation of copy will depend largely on [6] circumstances. If the condition of the manuscript is such as to show that the author really intended to put a fully punctuated, correctly spelled, and properly capitalized manuscript into the hands of the printer, he has a right to have his wishes respected even if his ideas are not those which prevail in the office. In such a case the compositor should follow copy literally. If any questions are to be raised they should be discussed by the proofreader with the author . The same rule holds in the case of manuscripts edited before being sent to the composing room. The editor has assumed all responsibility for the accuracy of the copy. In a great many cases the copy will come in carelessly written and wholly unedited. In such cases the compositor should punctuate as he goes along.

This is one of the tasks which subject the compositor to the test of intelligence. Printing is not now and never will be a purely mechanical trade. A printing office is no place for an apprentice who can not learn to think.

This book contains a description of the functions of the punctuation marks and the common rules for their use. Rules for the use of punctuation marks are very different from rules for the use of purely material things. They are useless unless applied intelligently. No set of rules could be devised which would work automatically or relieve the compositor from the necessity of thinking. Punctuation can never be reduced to an exact science.

II. Note the peculiarities of the best writers and the best printers, especially in contemporary examples.

V. Understand what you are printing. This is of supreme importance. Punctuation is an aid to understanding. You cannot correctly punctuate anything that you do not understand.

THE COMMA

The comma is by far the most difficult of all the punctuation marks to use correctly. Usage varies greatly from time to time and among equally good writers and printers at the same time. Certain general rules may be stated and should be learned. Many cases, however, will arise in which the rules will be differently interpreted and differently applied by different people.

The comma is the least degree of separation possible of indication in print. Its business is to define the particles and minor clauses of a sentence. A progressive tendency may be seen in the printing of English for centuries toward the elimination of commas, and the substitution of the comma for the semicolon and of the semicolon for the colon. Compare a page of the King James version of the Bible, especially in one of its earlier printings, with a page of serious discourse of to-day and the effects of the tendency will be easily seen. It is part of the general tendency toward greater simplicity of expression which has developed the clear and simple English of the best contemporary writers out of the involved and ornate style of the period of Queen Elizabeth. An ornate and involved style needs a good deal of punctuation to make it intelligible, while a simple and direct style needs but very little help.

This progressive change in the need for punctuation and in the attitude of writers toward it accounts for the difference in usage and for the difficulty in fixing rules to cover all cases. The present attitude toward punctuation, especially the use of the comma, is one of aversion. The writer is always held to justification of the presence of a comma rather than of its absence. Nevertheless it is quite possible to go too far in the omission of commas in ordinary writing. It is quite possible to construct sentences in such a way as to avoid their use. The result is a harsh and awkward style, unwarranted by any necessity. Ordinary [8] writing needs some use of commas to indicate the sense and to prevent ambiguity.

Always remember that the real business of the comma is just that of helping the meaning of the words and of preventing ambiguity by showing clearly the separation and connection of words and phrases. If there is possibility of misunderstanding without a comma, put one in. If the words tell their story beyond possibility of misunderstanding without a comma, there is no reason for its use. This rule will serve as a fairly dependable guide in the absence of any well recognized rule for a particular case, or where doubt exists as to the application of a rule.

In numerical statements the comma separates Arabic figures by triplets in classes of hundreds: $5,276,492.72.

The comma is placed between the words which it is intended to separate. When used in connection with quotation marks, it is always placed inside them.

1. After each adjective or adverb in a series of two or more when not connected by conjunctions.

2. After each pair in a series of pairs of words or phrases not connected by conjunctions.

5. Before a conjunction when the word which preceded it is qualified by an expression which does not qualify the word which follows the conjunction.

6. Between relative clauses which explain the antecedent, or which introduce a new thought.

If the relative clause limits the meaning of the antecedent, but does not explain it and does not add a new thought, the comma is not used.

If the connection of such expressions is so close as to form one connected idea the comma is not used.

8. To separate the co-ordinate clauses of compound sentences if such clauses are simple in construction and closely related.

9. To separate quotations, or similar brief expressions from the preceding part of the sentence.

10. To indicate the omission of the verb in compound sentences having a common verb in several clauses.

11. To separate phrases containing the case absolute from the rest of the sentence.

The comma is omitted when such an apposition is used as a single phrase or a compound name.

13. After phrases and clauses which are placed at the beginning of a sentence by inversion.

14. Introductory phrases beginning with if , when , wherever , whenever , and the like should generally be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, even when the statement may appear to be direct.

15. To separate introductory words and phrases and independent adverbs from the rest of the sentence.

Of course the comma is not used when these adverbs are used in the ordinary way.

20. To separate the closing salutation of a formal letter from the rest of the sentence of which it forms a part.

Exceptions to this rule are made in very brief sentences, especially in advertisements: Tickets 25 cents. Price one dollar.

[13] The foregoing rules for the use of the comma have been compiled from those given by a considerable number of authorities. Further examination of authorities would probably have added to the number and to the complexity of these rules. No two sets of rules which have come under the writer’s observation are alike. Positive disagreements in modern treatises on the subject are few. The whole matter, however, turns so much on the use made of certain general principles and the field is so vast that different writers vary greatly in their statements and even in their ideas of what ought to be stated. It is very difficult to strike the right mean between a set of rules too fragmentary and too incomplete for any real guidance and a set of rules too long to be remembered and used.

After all possible has been done to indicate the best usage it remains true that the writer or the printer must, in the last resort, depend very largely on himself for the proper application of certain principles. The compositor may find himself helped, or restricted, by the established style of the office, or he may at times be held to strict following of copy. When left to himself he must be guided by the following general principles:

The comma is not intended to break the matter up into lengths suited to the breath of one reading aloud.

III. The comma cannot be correctly used without a thorough understanding of the sense of the words.

THE SEMICOLON

The semicolon is used to denote a degree of separation greater than that indicated by the comma, but less than that indicated by the colon. It prevents the repetition of the comma and keeps apart the more important members of the sentence. The semicolon is generally used in long sentences, but may sometimes be properly used in short ones.

2. When the members of a compound sentence contain statements distinct, but not sufficiently distinct to be thrown into separate sentences.

3. When each of the members of a compound sentence makes a distinct statement and has some dependence [15] on statements in the other member or members of the sentence.

Each member of this sentence is nearly complete. It is not quite a full and definite statement, but it is much more than a mere amplification such as we might get by leaving out she hath every time after the first. In the former case we should use periods. In the latter we should use commas.

4. A comma is ordinarily used between the clauses of a compound sentence that are connected by a simple conjunction, but a semicolon may be used between clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs. Compare the following examples:

The semicolon should always be put outside quotation marks unless it forms a part of the quotation itself.

THE COLON

The colon marks the place of transition in a long sentence consisting of many members and involving a logical turn of the thought. Both the colon and semicolon are much less used now than formerly. The present tendency is toward short, simple, clear sentences, with consequent little punctuation, and that of the open style. Such sentences need little or no aid to tell their story.

1. Before as , viz. , that is , namely , etc., when these words introduce a series of particular terms in apposition with a general term.

2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two or more clauses divided by semicolons.

7. Between the city of publication and the name of the publisher in literary references.

The colon has been similarly employed in the imprints on the title pages of books.

DeVinne remarks upon this use of the colon that it is traditional and can not be explained.

The colon is sometimes used between the hours and minutes in indicating time, like: 11:42 a.m.

DeVinne does not approve of this, though other authorities give it as the rule. It is probably better to use the period in spite of its use as a decimal point, which use was probably the motive for seeking something else to use in writing time indications. In railroad printing the hour is often separated from the minutes by a simple space without any punctuation.

THE PERIOD

The period, or full stop, marks the end of a declarative sentence. As a sign it has several other uses which will appear in the paragraphs following.

When a parenthesis forms the end of a declarative sentence the period is placed outside the parenthesis, as in the preceding example. A period is placed inside a parenthesis only in two cases.

When a sentence ends with a quotation, the period always goes inside the quotation marks.

The same rule applies to the use of the other low marks, comma, semicolon, and colon, in connection with quotation marks. Unlike most rules of grammar and punctuation, this rule does not rest on a logical basis. It rests on purely typographic considerations, as the arrangement of points indicated by the rule gives a better looking line than can be secured by any other arrangement.

THE DASH

The dash is a very useful mark which has been greatly overworked by careless writers. It is very easy to make in manuscript and serves as a convenient cover for the writer’s ignorance of what point should properly be used.

The conspicuousness of the dash makes it a very useful mark for guiding the eye of the reader to the unity of the sentence. It is particularly useful in legal pleadings where there is much repetition of statement and great elaboration of detail. In such cases commas, semicolons, and even parentheses are so multiplied that the relation of the clauses is lost sight of. The confusion thus arising may often be cleared up by intelligent use of the dash.

The dash is sometimes used to connect a side heading with the text that follows, or to connect the end of that text with the name of the writer.

French printers use the dash in printing dialogue as a partial substitute for quotation marks. Quotation marks are placed at the beginning and end of the dialogue and a dash precedes each speech. This form is used even if the dialogue is extended over many pages.

3. To express in one sentence great contrariety of action or emotion or to increase the speed of the discourse by a succession of snappy phrases.

Attention may be called to Sterne’s use of the semicolon and the comma with the dash, a use now obsolete except in rare cases.

4. To separate the repetition or different amplifications of the same statement.

7. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence.

Note. In instances such as given in the two preceding rules the en dash may sometimes serve if the em dash appears too conspicuous.

10. A dash preceded by a colon is sometimes used before a long quotation forming a new paragraph. In other cases no point need accompany the dash.

The dash is sometimes used as a substitute for commas. Writers on the subject say that this use occurs when the connection between the parenthetical clause and the context is closer than would be indicated by commas. The distinction, if real, is difficult to see. It would be better if none but the most experienced writers attempted the use of the dash in this way.

Dashes are often used instead of marks of parenthesis. It is better to let each mark do its own work.

THE PARENTHESIS

The parenthesis, commonly used in pairs, encloses expressions which have no essential connection with the rest of the sentence, but are important to its full comprehension. It is liable to be neglected by writers because the dash is easier to make, and by printers because it is generally thought to mar the beauty of the line. Its distinct uses, however, should not be neglected.

1. To introduce into a sentence matter which is not essentially connected with the rest of the sentence, but aids in making it clear.

2. In reports of speeches to enclose the name of a person who has been referred to, or to indicate expressions on the part of the audience.

3. Parentheses enclosing interrogation points or exclamation points are sometimes introduced into a sentence to cast doubt on a statement or to express surprise or contempt.

4. Parentheses are used, generally in pairs, sometimes singly, to enclose the reference letters or figures used to [24] mark division and classification in arguments or in precise statements.

The old-fashioned form of parenthesis, always made too thin, may need a thin space between it and its adjoining character when it is placed too close to any letter that nearly fills the body in height, as in ( Hall ). The space may not be needed when the proximate character has a shoulder, as in ( Art), or when the parenthesis follows a period.)

The italic form of parenthesis is objectionable in book work. Distinction is sought for the word in italic and not for the parenthesis enclosing the word. The italic parenthesis may be used in job-work or full display lines of italic letters.

THE BRACKET

Brackets are used in pairs, like the parentheses. In Job composition either brackets or parentheses may be used, as suits the fancy or is convenient. In descriptive text matter, however, brackets should not be used where parentheses are clearly indicated.

1. To enclose words or phrases which are entirely independent of the rest of the sentence.

The enclosed words are usually comments, queries, corrections, criticisms, or directions inserted by some person other than the original writer or speaker.

2. To enclose passages of doubtful authenticity in reprints of early manuscripts, special amendments to bills under legislative consideration, or any other portions of a text which need peculiar identification.

3. In legal or ecclesiastical papers to indicate numerical words which may have to be changed, or to indicate where details are to be supplied.

5. A single bracket is used to enclose the ending of a long line of poetry which will not fit the register and has to be run over into an adjoining line.

Doubt whether to use parentheses or brackets can usually be settled by this general principle:

Parentheses always enclose remarks apparently made by the writer of the text. Brackets enclose remarks certainly made by the editor or reporter of that text.

THE INTERROGATION

The interrogation is the point that asks questions. It should always be placed outside quotation marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself.

Indirect questions, that is, statements that a question has been asked, do not require the interrogation.

3. The interrogation, like a certain inflection in the voice, may indicate that a sentence, though declarative in form, is really a question and requires an answer.

THE EXCLAMATION

Where the exclamations are repeated without particularly emphasizing each one, each may be followed by a comma except the last.

O used as a vocative or to express a desire or imprecation does not call for an exclamation.

The exclamation is sometimes used in job printing to fill out a display line or for other inadequate reasons. These uses should be avoided.

THE APOSTROPHE

The apostrophe is primarily the sign of the possessive case, but it has several other uses.

1. The apostrophe for the possessive case is added only to nouns, not to the pronouns, which have their distinct possessive forms. Its is a possessive pronoun. It’s is an abbreviation for it is . Do not use an apostrophe with the possessive adjectives hers , ours , yours , theirs , its .

2. All nouns in the singular and all nouns in the plural except those ending in s take an apostrophe and s to form the possessive.

There is much difference of opinion as to the invariability of the rule concerning singular nouns in s . DeVinne advises following the pronunciation. Where the second s is not pronounced, as often happens, to avoid the prolonged hissing sound of another s , he recommends omitting it in print.

3. The apostrophe indicates the omission of letters in dialect, in familiar dialogue, and in poetry.

When two words are practically made into one syllable, a thin space may be put before the apostrophe, except that don’t , can’t , won’t , and shan’t are consolidated. This use of a space serves to distinguish between the possessive in s and the contraction of is .

[29] 4. Figures expressing dates are often abbreviated, but it is not good general practice.

Except in these cases the apostrophe is not a plural sign and should be so used only when it is intended to reproduce a dialect or colloquialism.

The final ed of past tenses and past participles was formerly pronounced as a distinct syllable, thus: clos-ed , belov-ed , and this pronunciation continued in common use in poetry long after it was discontinued in prose. During this period of transition the modern pronunciation was indicated by dropping the e and using an apostrophe, thus: clos’d , belov’d . It is now understood that while the full spelling is to be used, the old pronunciation is not to be used unless specially indicated by placing a grave accent over the e of the last syllable, thus: belovèd .

At the same period poets, especially, used an apostrophe to indicate a silent e as in ev’ry , but the usage is now obsolete.

Such abbreviations as Dep’t , Gov’t , Sec’y , and the like, are objectionable in print. If such abbreviations are necessary it is better to use the forms Dept. , Govt. , Secy.

THE HYPHEN

The hyphen is used to join compound words; to mark the division of a word too long to go entirely into one line; to separate the syllables of words in order to show pronunciation; as a leader in tabular work. For this last purpose the period is to be preferred to any other mark in use. Tabular work without leaders is obscure and therefore objectionable.

QUOTATION MARKS

Quotation marks are signs used to indicate that the writer is giving exactly the words of another. A French printer named Morel used a comma in the outer margin to indicate a quoted line about 1550. About a century later another Frenchman, Ménage, introduced a mark («») resembling a double parenthesis but shorter. These marks were cast on the middle of the type body so that they could be reversed for use at either the beginning or the end of a quotation. The French have retained these signs as their quotation marks ever since.

When the English adopted the use of quotation marks, they did not take over the French marks, but substituted two inverted commas at the beginning and two apostrophes at the end of the quoted paragraph. These marks are typographically unsatisfactory. They are weak and therefore hardly adequate to their purpose in aiding the understanding through the eye. Being cast on the upper part of the type body, they leave a blank space below and thus impair the beauty of the line and interfere with good spacing. Certain rules for the position of quotation marks when used with other marks are based upon these typographical considerations rather than upon logical considerations.

Reports of what another person has said when given in words other than his own are called indirect quotations and take no marks.

2. A quotation of several paragraphs requires quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end [32] of the last one only. In legal documents, and sometimes elsewhere, quotations are defined and emphasized by putting double commas at the beginning of every line of the quotation.

The same result may be better obtained by using smaller type, or indenting the quotation, or both.

3. A quotation included within another quotation should be enclosed by single quotation marks.

4. Titles of books, essays, art works, etc., are usually enclosed in quotation marks. When the books are supposedly familiar to all readers, the marks are not used. You would not print “The Bible,” “Paradise Lost,” “The Iliad.”

The titles of books, etc., are sometimes printed in italics instead of being enclosed in quotation marks. This is a matter of office style rather than of good or bad practice.

5. In writing about plays or books, the name of the work may be quoted and the name of a character italicized. This is done to avoid confusion between the play, the character, and the real person portrayed. “William Tell” is a play. William Tell is a character in fiction. William Tell is a national hero of Switzerland.

This usage is by no means uniform; here again, we are on the ground of office style.

6. Names of vessels are sometimes quoted, sometimes italicized, and sometimes printed without distinguishing marks. Here we are once more on the ground of office style.

7. Sentences from a foreign language are usually enclosed in quotation marks. Single words or phrases are usually printed in italics. Both italics and quotation marks should not be used except under certain unusual conditions or when positively ordered by the author.

8. Quotation marks may be used with a word to which [33] the writer desires to attract particular attention or to which he desires to give an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning.

9. When a quotation is long or when it is introduced in a formal manner, it is usually preceded by a colon. Isolated words or phrases call for no point after the introductory clause. This is true when the phrases so quoted run to considerable length, provided there is no break in the flow of thought and expression.

10. When a quotation ends a sentence the quotation marks are placed after the period.

The position of the other marks (semicolon, colon, exclamation, and interrogation) is determined by the sense. If they form a part of the matter quoted, they go inside the quote marks; if not, they go outside them.

11. When quotation marks occur at the beginning of a line of poetry, they should go back into the indention space.

“Breathes there a man with soul so dead
Who never to himself hath said,
‘This is my own, my native land’?”

This illustration is also a good example of the use of marks in combinations. We have first the single quotation marking the end of the included quotation, then the interrogation which ends the sentence, then the double quotation marks in their proper position.

Quotation marks should not be used needlessly. Very familiar expressions from the best known authors, such as to the manor born , a conscience void of offence , with malice toward none and charity for all , have become part of the current coin of speech and need not be quoted. Lists of words considered as words merely, lists of books or plays, and other such copy should be printed without quotation marks. Sprinkling a page thickly with quotation marks not only spoils its appearance but makes it hard to read, without adding to its clearness of meaning.

GENERAL REMARKS

Book titles are now set without points. This fashion was introduced by Pickering of London about 1850. This method is generally to the advantage of the title page thus treated. It is possible, however, to carry it too far and so to obscure the sense. Commas should not be omitted from firm names, such as Longmans, Green & Co., as in case of such omission there is no way of knowing whether one or more persons are indicated. Punctuation should not be omitted from the titles which may accompany an author’s name, nor from the date if day and month are given as well as year.

Avoid the doubling of points wherever possible. When an abbreviation precedes a colon, omit the period. When an abbreviation precedes a comma, the period is often inserted, but in many cases one or the other can be dropped to advantage. The dash is not generally preceded by a comma, semicolon, or colon in current printing usage. A comma should rarely go before the first parenthesis. If used at all with the parentheses, it should follow the closing parenthesis. When a complete sentence is enclosed in parentheses, the period falls within the parentheses. When the enclosure is a brief passage at the end of a sentence, the period falls outside the parentheses.

Do not put a period before the apostrophe and the possessive s as in Co.’s . The word Company may be abbreviated to Co. although it is not desirable to do so if it can be avoided. The possessive of Co. is Co’s .

SUMMARY

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

The Writer’s Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick A. Stokes Company, New York.

A Manual for Writers. By Manly and Powell. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language. By Sherwin Cody. The Old Greek Press, Chicago.

English Composition, Book One, Enlarged. By Stratton D. Brooks. Ginn & Co., Boston.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS

The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own words.

A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed that nothing should be omitted.

In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions and such others as may occur to the teacher should be made the basis of frequent written work, and of final examinations.

The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only assures knowledge of material, but the power to express that knowledge correctly and in good form.

If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form it will be doubly useful.

QUESTIONS

7. Give the names of the principal punctuation marks and the meaning of the names.

50. What is said of the use of the apostrophe in such abbreviations as Dep’t ?

58. How would you punctuate the possessive of an abbreviation, for example, the Doctor’s house , using the abbreviation Dr. ?

59. Give a brief summarized statement of the use of the twelve punctuation marks.

GLOSSARY

Apposition —When the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear or emphatic by the use of another noun or pronoun, the two are said to be in apposition.

Clause —A group of words consisting of a subject and predicate with their modifiers and forming a part of a sentence; a sentence within a sentence.

Independent Adverbs —Adverbs not in grammatical relations with other words in the sentence.

Minor Clauses —Clauses other than the principal clause or main statement of a sentence.

Particle —One of the minor parts of speech not inflected, that is, not undergoing changes in form.

Phrase —An expression consisting usually of but a few words, denoting a single idea, or forming a separate part of a sentence.

Relative Clause —A clause joined to the rest of the sentence by a relative pronoun.

Salutation —A form of greeting, especially at the beginning or end of a letter.

TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES
FOR APPRENTICES

The following list of publications, comprising the Typographic Technical Series for Apprentices , has been prepared under the supervision of the Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in trade classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals.

Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers of the United States—employers, journeymen, and apprentices—with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study.

The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5×8 inches. Their general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each title in the following list.

Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text.

In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books.

Address all orders and inquiries to Committee on Education, United Typothetae of America, Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the printing business and its allied industries in the United States of America.

The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors, printers, and others identified with this work.

While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest.

The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each volume.

The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication.

Henry P. Porter , Chairman ,
E. Lawrence Fell ,
A. M. Glossbrenner ,
J. Clyde Oswald ,
Toby Rubovits .

CONTRIBUTORS

Isaac H. Blanchard Company , New York, N. Y.
S. H. Burbank & Co. , Philadelphia, Pa.
J. S. Cushing & Co. , Norwood, Mass.
The DeVinne Press , New York, N. Y.
R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co. , Chicago, Ill.
Geo. H. Ellis Co. , Boston, Mass.
Evans-Winter-Hebb , Detroit, Mich.
Franklin Printing Company , Philadelphia, Pa.
F. H. Gilson Company , Boston, Mass.
Stephen Greene & Co. , Philadelphia, Pa.
W. F. Hall Printing Co. , Chicago, Ill.
J. B. Lippincott Co. , Philadelphia, Pa.
McCalla & Co. Inc. , Philadelphia, Pa.
The Patteson Press , New York, New York
The Plimpton Press , Norwood, Mass.
Poole Bros. , Chicago, Ill.
Edward Stern & Co. , Philadelphia, Pa.
The Stone Printing & Mfg. Co. , Roanoke, Va.
C. D. Traphagen , Lincoln, Neb.
The University Press , Cambridge, Mass.

Boston Typothetae School of Printing , Boston, Mass.
William F. Fell Co. , Philadelphia, Pa.
The Kalkhoff Company , New York, N. Y.
Oxford-Print , Boston, Mass.
Toby Rubovits , Chicago, Ill.

Blomgren Brothers Co. , Chicago, Ill.
Flower Steel Electrotyping Co. , New York, N. Y.
C. J. Peters & Son Co. , Boston, Mass.
Royal Electrotype Co. , Philadelphia, Pa.
H. C. Whitcomb & Co. , Boston, Mass.

American Type Founders Co. , Boston, Mass.
C. B. Cottrell & Sons Co. , Westerly, R. I.
Golding Manufacturing Co. , Franklin, Mass.
Harvard University , Cambridge, Mass.
Inland Printer Co. , Chicago, Ill.
Lanston Monotype Machine Company , Philadelphia, Pa.
Mergenthaler Linotype Company , New York, N. Y.
Geo. H. Morrill Co. , Norwood, Mass.
Oswald Publishing Co. , New York, N. Y.
The Printing Art , Cambridge, Mass.
B. D. Rising Paper Company , Housatonic, Mass.
The Vandercook Press , Chicago, Ill.

American Writing Paper Co. , Holyoke, Mass.
West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co. , Mechanicville, N. Y.

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SCHOOLS TEACHING PRINTING
Boston:	Boston Typothetæ School of Printing.
“	Industrial Arts High School.
Chicago:	Lakeside Press School of Printing.
“	Chicago Typothetæ School of Printing.
“	Lane Technical High School.