The Project Gutenberg eBook of Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States Author: F. E. L. Beal Release date: October 11, 2010 [eBook #33935] Language: English Credits: Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas, Joseph Cooper and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.ne *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES OF THE UNITED STATES *** Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas, Joseph Cooper and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.ne UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 280 Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief ----------------------------------------------------------------- Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 27, 1915 ----------------------------------------------------------------- FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES OF THE UNITED STATES By F. E. L. Beal, _Assistant Biologist_. CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 1 Townsend's solitaire 3 Wood thrush 5 Veery and willow thrush 9 Gray-cheeked and Bicknell's thrushes 11 Olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes 13 Hermit thrushes 18 [Illustration: logo] WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE [Illustration: shield] BULLETIN No. 280 [Illustration: shield] Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief ------------------------------------------------------------------ Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 27, 1915 ------------------------------------------------------------------ FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES OF THE UNITED STATES. By F. E. L. Beal, _Assistant Biologist_. INTRODUCTION. North American thrushes (Turdidæ) constitute a small but interesting group of birds, most of which are of retiring habits but noted as songsters. They consist of the birds commonly known as thrushes, robins, bluebirds, Townsend's solitaire, and the wheatears. The red-winged thrush of Europe (_Turdus musicus_) is accidental in Greenland, and the wheatears (_Saxicola œnanthe_ subspp.) are rarely found in the Western Hemisphere except in Arctic America. Within the limits of the United States are 11 species of thrushes, of which the following 6 are discussed in this bulletin: Townsend's solitaire (_Myadestes townsendi_), the wood thrush (_Hylocichla mustelina_), the veery and willow thrush (_Hylocichla fuscescens_ subspp.), the gray-cheeked and Bicknell's thrushes (_Hylocichla aliciæ_ subspp.), the olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes (_Hylocichla ustulata_ subspp.), and the hermit thrushes (_Hylocichla guttata_ subspp.). An account of the food habits of the 5 species of robins and bluebirds appeared in Department Bulletin No. 171. As a group thrushes are plainly colored and seem to be especially adapted to thickly settled rural districts, as the shyest of them, with the exception of the solitaire, do not require any greater seclusion than that afforded by an acre or two of woodland or swamp. The thrushes are largely insectivorous, and also are fond of spiders, myriapods, sowbugs, snails, and angleworms. The vegetable portion of their diet consists mostly of berries and other small fruits. As a family thrushes can not be called clean feeders, for the food eaten often contains a considerable proportion of such matter as dead leaves, stems, and other parts of more or less decayed vegetation. It might be supposed that this was gathered from the ground with insects and other food, but investigation shows that much of it has a different origin. It was noticed that the setæ or spines of earthworms were a very common accompaniment of this decayed vegetation. Earthworms themselves are rather rarely found in stomachs, although some birds, as the robin, eat them freely. It is well known that the food of earthworms consists largely of partially decayed vegetable matter found in the soil. Hence it is probable that decayed vegetation found in the stomachs of thrushes is the food contained in the earthworms when they were swallowed. The tissues of worms are quickly digested, leaving the contents of their alimentary canals mixed with the hard indigestible setæ or spines. Thrushes of the genus _Hylocichla_ show a very pronounced taste for ants, and the average consumption of these insects by the five species is 12.65 per cent. Few birds other than woodpeckers show so strong a liking for this highly flavored food. Hymenoptera in general, including ants, bees, and wasps, are the second largest item of insect food. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next as an article of thrush diet, while Orthoptera (grasshoppers), which are a favorite food with most birds, do not seem to appeal much to the thrushes. The thrushes are pronounced ground feeders, and may often be seen picking small fruit that has fallen to the ground. The vegetable portion of their food (40.72 per cent) is largely composed of fruit, which constitutes over 34 per cent of the total food. Of this 30.88 per cent is made up of wild berries, which outweigh the domestic varieties with every species. In all, 94 species of wild fruits or berries were identified in the stomachs of these birds, although it is not always practicable to identify such material unless seeds or some other characteristic parts are present. As this is not often the case, a considerable portion of the stomach contents must be pronounced "fruit pulp" without further identification; thus probably many more species are eaten than are recorded. Moreover, in the case of some fruits, it is not possible to distinguish species by the seeds, so that many species go unrecognized except as to genus. Domestic fruits are eaten so sparingly by the thrushes here considered as to be of no economic importance. Note.--This bulletin treats of the economic relations and value to agriculture of the thrushes of the United States other than robins and bluebirds. These two forms were discussed in Department Bulletin No. 171, issued February 5, 1915. TOWNSEND'S SOLITAIRE (_Myadestes townsendi._) Townsend's solitaire, a bird of the far West, is a resident of high mountains and lonely gorges. It is partial to running streams and often builds its nest just above a rushing mountain torrent. It ranges from Alaska through the Sierras south to San Bernardino, Cal., and through the Rockies to Arizona and New Mexico, and occasionally farther east. The species is not evenly distributed over this region, but is restricted to such high mountainous portions as afford its favorite surroundings. As long as it retains these habits the bird will have little or no effect upon the products of husbandry, and its food can have only a scientific interest. The song of this species is said to be at times the finest of any of the thrush family. As this bird is comparatively rare in settled regions only 41 stomachs are available for determining the character of its food. The most southerly and easterly one was taken in Texas, the most westerly in California, and the most northerly in Wyoming. They are distributed through all the months of the year, although April and May are represented by but one each and December by but two. Every other month has three or more. An investigation based upon such limited material can be considered only as preliminary, but will serve to show some of the more important elements of the food. This was made up of 35.90 per cent of animal matter to 64.10 of vegetable. _Animal food._--The animal food consists of insects and spiders, with a few hair worms (_Gordius_) found in one stomach. These last may have been contained in the insects eaten. Among insects, beetles constitute the second largest item (10.74 per cent), but 5.89 per cent of these were the useful predatory ground beetles (Carabidæ). This is not a good showing, but too few stomachs have been examined to allow sweeping conclusions. As evidence that this can not be taken as a fair sample of the bird's food habits it may be stated that all of these beetles were taken in January and October. The one stomach collected in January contained 95 per cent of Carabidæ--the only animal food in it--and 93 per cent of the contents of one October stomach was made up of the same material. Evidently in these cases the bird had found a colony of the beetles and filled up with them. Had they constituted the usual diet of the species they would have appeared in other months and in more stomachs, but in smaller quantities. Other families of beetles are eaten so sparingly as to be of little importance. Scarabæidæ stand the next highest, but they amount to less than 2 per cent of the food. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) make the largest item in the food of _Myadestes_. Eaten much more regularly than beetles, they probably are a standard article of diet. They were found in the stomachs collected in every month of the year but four, and a greater number of stomachs would probably show them in every month. The one stomach taken in May contained the maximum (72 per cent). The total for the year is 12.95 per cent. Ants are eaten to the extent of 4.71 per cent, while other Hymenoptera, as bees and wasps, make up less than half of 1 per cent. Diptera (flies) are represented by a mere trace in the stomachs. Observers who have seen this bird in its native haunts testify that it takes a considerable portion of its food on the wing. In view of this fact it seems curious that the two orders of insects most active on the wing (Hymenoptera and Diptera) should be so scantily represented in the food. Hymenoptera are a standard diet with flycatchers and would seem to be the natural food of any bird that feeds upon the wing. Hemiptera (bugs) were found to the extent of 3.51 per cent of the total food. All were contained in three stomachs taken in March, June, and July. In the July stomach four cicadas, or dog-day flies, constituted the whole contents. Grasshoppers amount to less than 1 per cent and all other insects to but a trifle. Spiders were eaten to the extent of 2.94 per cent of the food and were found in the stomachs taken in seven of the twelve months, and judging from their distribution they are eaten whenever available. A hair snake (_Gordius_) was found in one stomach. Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found: COLEOPTERA. _Amara erratica_ 1 _Aphodius_ sp 1 _Balaninus_ sp 1 HEMIPTERA. _Platypedia putnami_ 1 _Vegetable food._--The vegetable portion of the food of _Myadestes_ is 64.10 per cent of the whole, and 58.70 per cent of this, or more than half the whole food, is classified as wild fruit or berries. These were found in stomachs collected in every month. From the even distribution of this food through the year and from the quantity eaten it is evidently a favorite article of diet. Nothing was found in any of the stomachs that could be identified as cultivated fruit, with the possible exception of a mass of fruit pulp found in one. A few seeds of poison ivy and sumac, with fragments of flowers and a few weed seeds, complete the vegetable food. Following is a list of fruits, seeds, etc., identified, and the number of stomachs in which found: Rocky Mountain cedar (_Juniperus scopulorum_) 3 Western cedar (_Juniperus monospermum_) 1 Other cedars (_Juniperus_ sp.) 2 Hackberries (_Celtis occidentalis_) 1 Douglas hackberries (_Celtis douglasii_) 1 Service berries (_Amelanchier_ sp.) 1 Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 2 Wild cherries (_Prunus_ sp.) 1 Sumac berries (_Rhus_ sp.) 1 Poison ivy (_Rhus toxicodendron_) 1 Waxwork (_Celastrus_ sp.) 1 Madrona berries (_Arbutus menziesii_) 5 Honeysuckle berries (_Lonicera_ sp.) 1 Elderberries (_Sambucus_ sp.) 1 Fruit not further identified 3 _Summary._--With so small an amount of material it is not safe to draw general conclusions, but in the case of _Myadestes_ one point seems clear--the bird's favorite food is small wild fruit, and as long as this is abundant the bird will probably not attack cultivated varieties; but should any portion of the region occupied by the solitaire be cleared of its wild fruit and cultivated species be introduced these would likely be preyed upon. Under such conditions this bird, now perfectly harmless, might inflict considerable damage. WOOD THRUSH. (_Hylocichla mustelina._) The wood thrush is distributed over the eastern part of the United States wherever suitable conditions are found. It is a lover of open groves and bushy pastures, and may be found along little-traveled roads and near low bushy swamps. The bird is noted for its sweet song, and many country people who are well acquainted with its notes know little or nothing of the bird itself. Its favorite time for singing is in the early evening at the close of a sultry afternoon when a shower has cooled the air. As a rule, it does not nest in gardens or orchards and is seldom seen about farm buildings. It is strictly migratory, and the greater number pass out of the United States in winter, though a few remain in the Southern States. It usually migrates north in April or early May. For the investigation of the food habits of the wood thrush 171 stomachs were available. One of these was collected in Florida in January and another in Alabama in February, and these two will be treated separately. The remaining 169 were collected from April to October, and are fairly well distributed over that time. The food consisted of 59.59 per cent of animal matter to 40.41 per cent of vegetable. The greatest quantity of animal food was eaten in April, the month of arrival from the south, and the least in October, the month of the return migration. _Animal food._--Beetles, collectively (20.40 per cent), constitute the largest item of animal food. Of these, 2.23 per cent are the predacious ground beetles (Carabidæ), generally considered useful. The remainder belong to several more or less harmful families, of which the May-beetle family (Scarabæidæ) amount to 10.17 per cent. Snout beetles, or weevils (Rhynchophora), are eaten to the extent of 2.16 per cent only, and the wood-boring chick-beetles (Elateridæ) to 2.13 per cent. Among the various species of these insects were noted the remains of the well-known Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_), in two stomachs, and _Coptocycla signifera_, also injurious to the potato, in one stomach. Remains of _Otiorhynchus ovatus_, a weevil destructive to strawberry plants, were found in two stomachs, and in one other a weevil, _Sphenophorus parvulus_, that injures the roots of grass. The well-known white grubs that attack grass roots and a host of other plants are the immature forms of many species of _Lachnosterna_, of several species of _Euphoria_ and of _Allorhina nitida_. Of these, remains of _Lachnosterna_ were found in 27 stomachs and of _Allorhina_ and _Euphoria_ in one each. [Illustration: B2084-73 Fig. 1.--Wood thrush (_Hylocichla mustelina_).] Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next to Coleoptera (beetles) in the animal diet of the wood thrush. Although eaten with a fair degree of regularity during every month of the bird's stay in the north, the most were taken in July (16.32 per cent). The average for the season is 9.42 per cent. Ants as an item of food are third in importance, though if other Hymenoptera were included the order would rank next to beetles. They seem to be a rather favorite food with all birds of the genus _Hylocichla_. With the wood thrush they begin with 18.12 per cent in April and gradually decrease through the summer and disappear in October. The total for the season is 8.89 per cent. Hymenoptera other than ants were eaten with great regularity (3.86 per cent) throughout the season, but not in large quantities. Diptera (flies) are eaten in small quantities and rather irregularly. Most of them were the long-legged crane flies (Tipulidæ), both in the adult and larval form. The total for the season is 2.70 per cent. Hemiptera (bugs) do not appear to be a favorite food, though a few were taken in all of the seven months except October. The average for the season is only 1.33 per cent. Orthoptera (grasshoppers) are eaten in small quantities until July, after which they form a fair percentage till September. The total consumption amounts to 2.28 per cent of the food. A few other insects make up a fraction of 1 per cent. Spiders and myriapods (thousand-legs) appear to be a favorite food with the wood thrush, constituting in April 20.94 per cent of the food, but gradually decreasing in quantity until September. The aggregate for the year is 8.49 per cent. A few sowbugs (isopods), snails, and earthworms (1.83 per cent) close the account of animal food. Following is a list of the insects identified in the stomachs of the wood thrush and the number of stomachs in which each was found: HYMENOPTERA. _Tiphia inornata_ 1 COLEOPTERA. _Harpalus herbivagus_ 1 _Necrophorus tomentosus_ 1 _Philonthus lomatus_ 1 _Hister abbreviatus_ 1 _Hister depurator_ 1 _Hister americanus_ 2 _Ips quadriguttatus_ 1 _Melanotus americanus_ 1 _Corymbites cylindriformis_ 1 _Agrilus bilineatus_ 1 _Telephorus carolinus_ 1 _Onthophagus striatulus_ 1 _Onthophagus tuberculifrons_ 1 _Onthophagus_ sp 3 _Atænius_ sp 2 _Aphodius granarius_ 1 _Aphodius_ sp 1 _Dichelonycha testacea_ 1 _Dichelonycha_ sp 1 _Lachnosterna_ sp 27 _Ligyrus_ sp 1 _Allorhina nitida_ 1 _Euphoria fulgida_ 1 _Euphoria_ sp 2 _Chrysomela pulchra_ 1 _Leptinotarsa decemlineata_ 2 _Odontota_ sp 1 _Coptocycla signifera_ 1 _Coptocycla_ sp 1 _Anametus griseus_ 1 _Phyxelis rigidus_ 1 _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 2 _Tanymecus confertus_ 1 _Pandeletejus hilaris_ 1 _Barypithes pellucidus_ 1 _Listronotus latiusculus_ 1 _Macrops_ sp 1 _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 2 _Acalles carinatus_ 1 _Balaninus_ sp 2 _Eupsalis minuta_ 1 _Sphenophorus parvulus_ 1 HEMIPTERA. _Nezara hilaris_ 2 ORTHOPTERA. _Diapheromera femorata_ 1 ISOPTERA. _Termes flavipes_ 1 _Vegetable food._--More than nine-tenths of the vegetable food of the wood thrush can be included in a single item--fruit. Cultivated fruit, or what was thought to be such, was found in stomachs taken from June to September, inclusive. It was eaten regularly and moderately, and the total for the season was 3.74 per cent of the whole food. Wild fruits or berries of 22 species were found in 72 stomachs, distributed through every month of the bird's stay at the north. Beginning with 1.18 per cent in April, the quantity gradually increases to 87.17 per cent in October, when it makes more than five-sixths of the whole food. The average for the season is 33.51 per cent. In this investigation _Rubus_ seeds (blackberries or raspberries) are always reckoned as cultivated fruit, though probably most often wild. Besides fruit, a few seeds and rose haws were found, which with a little rubbish complete the vegetable food (40.41 per cent). Following is a list of fruits, seeds, etc., identified and the number of stomachs in which found: Yew berries (_Taxus minor_) 1 False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina racemosa_) 1 Bayberries (_Myrica carolinensis_) 1 Mulberries (_Morus_ sp.) 10 Spiceberries (_Benzoin æstivale_) 5 Currants (_Ribes_ sp.) 1 Mountain ash (_Pyrus americanus_) 2 Service berries (_Amelanchier canadensis_) 2 Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 17 Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 1 Chokecherries (_Prunus virginiana_) 7 Domestic cherries (_Prunus cerasus_) 4 Croton (_Croton_ sp.) 1 American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 2 Woodbine berries (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 1 Frost grapes (_Vitis cordifolia_) 4 Wild sarsaparilla (_Aralia nudicaulis_) 1 Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 3 Rough-leaved cornel (_Cornus asperifolia_) 4 Dogwood (_Cornus_ sp.) 1 Black gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 1 Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 Blueberries (_Vaccinium_ sp.) 6 French mulberry (_Callicarpa americana_) 1 Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 1 Other elderberries (_Sambucus_ sp.) 3 Fruit pulp not further identified 12 Of the two stomachs not included in the foregoing discussion, the one taken in Florida in January contained 93 per cent of wild fruit and 7 per cent of weevils, wasps, and spiders; the one collected in Alabama in February was entirely filled with animal food, of which 88 per cent was caterpillars, 5 per cent May beetles, 6 per cent bugs, and 1 per cent spiders. _Summary._--The animal food of the wood thrush includes remarkably few useful insects and contains some very harmful ones, as the Colorado potato beetle and many of the Scarabæidæ, the larval forms of which are the well-known white grubs which are a pest to agriculture in preying upon roots of plants. The vegetable portion of the food contains a small quantity of cultivated fruit, but observation shows that the thrush is in the habit of picking up fallen fruit instead of taking it fresh from the tree. The eating of wild fruit has no economic interest except that it serves to distribute the seeds of many shrubs and trees. There is no occasion to discriminate against this bird in any way. It should be rigidly protected. VEERY AND WILLOW THRUSH. (_Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens_ and _Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola_.) The veery is distributed over the eastern portion of the United States during migration and breeds in the Northern States as far south as Pennsylvania, and in New England and Canada. In winter it disappears almost entirely from the country, only a few remaining in Florida and perhaps in other Southern States. Its western representative is the willow thrush. Like other thrushes, birds of this species are shy and retiring in disposition, keeping for the most part in the shade of woods or bushy swamps, or building nests in a damp ravine with a brook gurgling past. They have been known, however, to visit orchards and sometimes gardens which are not kept too trim. It is thus evident that the food has little direct economic interest, as this bird does not come in contact with the farmer's crops. For investigating the food of the species 176 stomachs were available. They were collected during the seven months from April to October, and represent 18 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada. The food separates into 57.27 per cent of animal matter and 42.73 per cent of vegetable. The former consists mostly of remains of insects, and the latter of fruit. _Animal food._--Predacious ground beetles (Carabidæ) amount to 0.82 per cent. They are evidently not a preferred food. Beetles in general comprise 14.67 per cent of the food, but no family or other group appears to be distinguished except the Carabidæ, which are conspicuous by their absence. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount to 2.49 per cent, and one stomach contained a specimen of the notorious plum curculio (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_). A number of other harmful beetles were noted, but none are so well known as the plum destroyer. Ants make up 10.35 per cent and are eaten with great regularity. Hymenoptera other than ants amount to only 3.26 per cent, but are eaten regularly throughout the season. Hemiptera (bugs) were eaten to a small extent (1.30 per cent) in the first four months, but they are not seen after July. Exactly the same may be said of Diptera, which total only 0.85 per cent. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) are, next to Hymenoptera, the favorite insect food. They were eaten in goodly quantities in every month except October. The average for the season is 11.91 per cent. Grasshoppers appear to some extent in every month except April, the greatest consumption taking place in October (24 per cent), but as only small numbers are eaten in the earlier months the aggregate for the year is only 4.91 per cent. A few other insects of various orders amount to 0.98 per cent. Spiders (6.34 per cent) are eaten regularly and constantly through the season, except that none were taken in October. A few sowbugs, snails, etc. (2.70 per cent), complete the quota of animal food. Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found: HYMENOPTERA. _Tiphia inornata_ 1 COLEOPTERA _Elaphrus ruscarius_ 1 _Anisodactylus harrisi_ 1 _Anisodactylus_ sp 1 _Pterostichus lucublandus_ 1 _Hydrobius fuscipes_ 1 _Ips fasciata_ 1 _Byrrhus murinus_ 1 _Dolopius lateralis_ 2 _Limonius æger_ 1 _Corymbites cylindriformis_ 1 _Corymbites spinosus_ 1 _Corymbites tarsalis_ 1 _Corymbites hieroglyphicus_ 1 _Podabrus flavicollis_ 1 _Telephorus bilineatus_ 2 _Telephorus_ sp 1 _Onthophagus_ sp 2 _Atænius cognatus_ 1 _Aphodius_ sp 3 _Dichelonycha_ sp 2 _Serica sericea_ 1 _Lachnosterna hirticula_ 1 _Lachnosterna_ sp 13 _Chrysomela pulchra_ 3 _Chlamys plicata_ 1 _Typophorus canellus_ 1 _Graphops simplex_ 1 _Graphops_ sp 1 _Calligrapha philadelphica_ 1 _Œdionychis quercata_ 1 _Microrhopala vittata_ 1 _Hormorus undulatus_ 1 _Phyxelis rigidus_ 1 _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 1 _Neoptochus adspersus_ 1 _Cercopeus chrysorrhœus_ 2 _Barypithes pellucidus_ 2 _Sitones_ sp 2 _Phytonomus nigrirostris_ 2 _Conotrachelus nenuphar_ 1 _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 1 _Tyloderma_ sp 1 _Monarthrum mali_ 1 _Xyloteres politus_ 1 DIPTERA. _Bibio_ sp 1 _Vegetable food._--The vegetable portion of the food of the species is made up of fruit, with a few seeds and a little miscellaneous matter more or less accidental. Fruit collectively amounts to 35.30 per cent, of which 12.14 per cent was thought to be of cultivated varieties and so recorded, while the remainder, 23.16 per cent, was quite certainly of wild species. This percentage of cultivated fruit is more than three times the record of the wood thrush, while the wild fruit eaten is correspondingly less, as the sum total of the fruit consumed is very nearly the same with both birds. From this percentage of domestic fruit one might infer that the veery was, or might be, a serious menace to fruit growing, but no such complaints have been heard, and it is probable that the species is not numerous enough to damage cultivated crops. A close inspection, however, of the fruit eating of the veery removes all doubts. The cultivated fruit, so called, was in every case either strawberries or _Rubus_ fruits, i. e., blackberries or raspberries, and as both of these grow wild and in abundance wherever the veery spends its summer, it is probable that all of the fruit eaten was taken from wild plants, though 12.14 per cent has been conventionally recorded as cultivated. Besides fruit, the veery eats a few seeds of grasses and weeds and a few of sumac, but none of the poisonous species were found in the stomachs. These seeds (7.25 per cent of the food) were eaten so irregularly as to suggest that they are merely a makeshift taken for want of something better. Rubbish (0.18 per cent), consisting of decayed wood, bits of leaves, plant stems, etc., completes the vegetable food. Following is a list of the items of vegetable food and the number of stomachs in which found: Yew berries (_Taxus minor_) 1 Pigeon grass seed (_Chætochloa_ sp.) 1 Rush grass seed (_Sporobolus minor_) 1 False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina_ sp.) 1 Greenbrier berries (_Smilax_ sp.) 2 Hackberries (_Celtis occidentalis_) 1 Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 3 Spice berries (_Benzoin æstivale_) 2 Service berries (_Amelanchier canadensis_) 3 June berries (_Amelanchier_ sp.) 9 Mountain ash (_Pyrus americana_) 1 Crab apples (_Pyrus_ sp.) 1 Strawberries (_Fragaria_ sp.) 3 Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 8 Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 1 Bird cherries (_Prunus pennsylvanica_) 1 Chokecherries (_Prunus virginiana_) 1 Staghorn sumac (_Rhus hirta_) 2 Dwarf sumac (_Rhus copallina_) 1 Three-leaved sumac (_Rhus trilobata_) 1 Other sumac (_Rhus_ sp.) 1 American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 1 Woodbine berries (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 1 White cornel (_Cornus candidissima_) 2 Alternate-leaved cornel (_Cornus alternifolia_) 3 Rough-leaved cornel (_Cornus asperifolia_) 1 Dogwood berries (_Cornus_ sp.) 2 Sour gum berries (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 1 Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 Blueberries (_Vaccinium_ sp.) 4 Snowberries (_Symphoricarpos racemosus_) 2 Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 2 Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 4 Other elderberries (_Sambucus_ sp.) 3 Fruit pulp not further identified 4 _Summary._--It is hardly necessary to make a summary of the food of this bird in order to bring out its good points, for it seems to have no others. The animal food includes less than 1 per cent of useful beetles, and the remainder is either harmful or neutral. In the matter of vegetable food there seems to be no chance for criticism, as nature evidently supplies all it needs. The bird has never been harmed, but has been held in high esteem for sentimental reasons; let it also be valued and protected for its economic worth. GRAY-CHEEKED AND BICKNELL'S THRUSHES. (_Hylocichla aliciæ aliciæ_ and _Hylocichla aliciæ bicknelli_.) The gray-cheeked thrush (_H. a. aliciæ_) is found in migration over all the Eastern States, but breeds farther north, beyond our limits. Bicknell's thrush (_H. a. bicknelli_), a closely related form, while having somewhat the same general range, breeds farther south and nests in the mountains of northern New York and New England. Both subspecies have the same general habits as other forms of the genus so far as haunts and choice of residence are concerned, but their far-northern range excludes them from coming into contact with cultivated crops. The species does not seem to be very abundant anywhere, and consequently only a few stomachs have been received for examination. In all they number but 111 and are very irregularly distributed in time. None were taken in August and only one in July and two in June. From so scanty and unevenly distributed material it is impossible to draw final conclusions, but we can get some idea as to the nature of the bird's food and its economic importance. The first analysis of the food gives 74.86 per cent of animal matter to 25.14 per cent of vegetable. This is the most animal food found in the stomachs of any bird of the genus _Hylocichla_ and the largest but two of any of the thrushes. _Animal food._--Beetles collectively amount to about one-third of all the food (33.32 per cent). Of these, 2.83 per cent are the useful Carabidæ. The rest belong to harmful families, such as the Scarabæidæ, Elateridæ, and the weevils, or snout beetles. Ants amount to 16.34 per cent and are eaten very regularly--the most in the early part of the season. Hymenoptera other than ants, as wasps and bees, were eaten to the extent of 5.60 per cent, and with the ants make 21.94 per cent, placing this food next in rank to beetles. As in the case of ants, most of the bees and wasps were eaten in the first three months of the season. No honey bees were found. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) were third in order of abundance (8.81 per cent). No special pest was discovered, but all caterpillars may be considered as harmful. A few grasshoppers were found in the stomachs taken in April and May, and more in those collected in September and October. They do not appear to be a favorite food and amount to only 1.72 per cent. Other insects, as flies, bugs, and a few others, collectively amount to 2.89 per cent. Among these, it is of interest to note in one stomach the remains of the famous seventeen-year locust (_Tibicen septemdecem_), rather large game for so small a bird. Spiders are freely eaten by the gray-cheeked thrush in spring, and sparingly in fall. For the season they constitute 5.77 per cent of the food. A few other animals, as crawfish, sowbugs, and angleworms (0.41 per cent), complete the animal food. Following is a list of the insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found: HYMENOPTERA. _Lophyrus_ sp 1 _Aphænogaster tennesseense_ 1 COLEOPTERA. _Cychrus andrewsi_ 2 _Cychrus_ sp 2 _Dyschirius hispidus_ 1 _Hister sedecimstriatus_ 1 _Phelister vernus_ 1 _Epuræa rufa_ 3 _Stelidota 8-maculata_ 1 _Byrrhus murinus_ 1 _Eucinetus morio_ 1 _Monocrepidius vespertinus_ 1 _Agriotes limosus_ 1 _Corymbites signaticollis_ 1 _Podabrus flavicollis_ 1 _Telephorus bilineatus_ 1 _Onthophagus_ sp 1 _Atænius strigatus_ 1 _Atænius ovatulus_ 1 _Atænius_ sp 3 _Aphodius ruricola_ 1 _Aphodius inquinatus_ 3 _Aphodius_ sp 1 _Serica_ sp 1 _Lachnosterna_ sp 10 _Anomala_ sp 1 _Leptura sphæricollis_ 1 _Leptura mutabilis_ 1 _Chrysomela pulchra_ 4 _Blapstinus metallicus_ 1 _Helops micans_ 1 _Hormorus undulatus_ 1 _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 1 _Cercopeus chrysorrhœus_ 2 _Pandeletejus hilaris_ 1 _Sitones_ sp 1 _Hylobius pales_ 1 _Desmoris constrictus_ 1 _Bagous sellatus_ 1 _Anthonomus sycophanta_ 1 _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 2 _Acalles clavatus_ 1 _Acalles_ sp 1 _Cryptorhynchus ferratus_ 1 _Sphenophorus melanocephalus_ 1 HEMIPTERA. _Tibicen septendecem_ 1 _Nezara hilaris_ 1 _Vegetable food._--A few _Rubus_ seeds were recorded as cultivated fruit, but they were found in only two stomachs and probably were wild, as the gray-cheeked thrush does not live where it is likely to come in contact with cultivated blackberries or raspberries. In any case they amount to only 0.15 per cent. Wild fruits of 18 different species (23.98 per cent) make up nearly one-fourth of the whole food--in fact, the vegetable food, other than wild fruit, is insignificant. Wild berries supplement the regular food, which consists of insects and spiders. The following list shows the fruits and seeds identified and the number of stomachs in which found: False spikenard (_Smilacina racemosa_) 1 Greenbrier berries (_Smilax_ sp.) 2 Bayberries (_Myrica carolinensis_) 1 Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 2 Crab apples (_Pyrus_ sp.) 1 Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 5 Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 2 Sumac berries (_Rhus_ sp.) 1 Black-alder berries (_Ilex verticillata_) 1 Wild grapes (_Vitis_ sp.) 5 Wild sarsaparilla (_Aralia_ sp.) 1 Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 5 Rough-leaved dogwood (_Cornus asperifolia_) 2 White cornel (_Cornus candidissima_) 1 Dogwood (_Cornus_ sp.) 1 Sour gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 2 Black nightshade (_Solanum nigrum_) 1 Dockmackie (_Viburnum acerifolium_) 1 Arrowwood (_Viburnum_ sp.) 1 Elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 3 Fruit not further identified 6 _Summary._--In the food of the gray-cheeked thrush the only useful element is a small percentage (2.83) of useful beetles. The remainder of the animal food is composed of either harmful or neutral elements. The vegetable food, drawn entirely from nature's great storehouse, contains no product of human industry, either of grain or fruit. Whatever the sentimental reasons for protecting this bird, the economic ones are equally valid. OLIVE-BACKED AND RUSSET-BACKED THRUSHES. (_Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni_ and _Hylocichla ustulata ustulata_.) The olive-backed thrush and its relative, the russet-backed, occupy the whole of the United States at some time during the year. The olive-back breeds north of our northern border, except in the higher mountains, and the russet-back on the Pacific coast nests as far south as southern California. The habits of birds of this species resemble those of others of the genus in living in swamps and woodlands rather than in gardens and orchards. The russet-back on the Pacific coast, however, seems to have become quite domestic, and wherever a stream runs through or past an orchard or garden, or the orchard is near thick chaparral, this bird is sure to be found taking its toll of the fruit and rearing its young in the thicket beside the stream. During the cherry season it takes a liberal share of the fruit, but its young, then in the nest, are fed almost entirely on insects. The eastern subspecies, on the contrary, does not come in contact with domestic fruit or any other product of husbandry. A great number of the subspecies nest far north of the region of fruit raising. For this investigation 403 stomachs of the olive-backed thrush were available, collected in 25 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada. Florida, Louisiana, and Texas represent the most southern collections and New Brunswick, Ontario, and Northwest Territory the most northern. In California 157 stomachs were obtained, which, with those taken in Oregon and Washington, fairly represent the Pacific coast region. The whole collection was fairly well distributed over the nine months from March to November. The food consisted of 63.52 per cent of animal matter to 36.48 per cent of vegetable. _Animal food._--Beetles of all kinds amount to 16.29 per cent. Of these 3.14 per cent are the useful Carabidæ. The others belong to harmful or neutral families. Weevils or snout-beetles (Rhynchophora) amount to 5.29 per cent, a high percentage for such insects. One Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_) was found in a stomach taken on Long Island. Hymenoptera collectively aggregate 21.50 per cent. Of these, 15.20 per cent are ants--a favorite food of _Hylocichla_. The remainder (6.30 per cent) were wild bees and wasps. No honeybees were found. Caterpillars, which rank next in importance in the food of the olive-back, form a good percentage of the food of every month represented and aggregate 10.30 per cent for the season. Grasshoppers are not an important element in the food of thrushes, as they chiefly inhabit open areas, while _Hylocichla_ prefers thick damp cover, where grasshoppers are not found. An inspection of the record shows that most of the orthopterous food taken by the olive-back consists of crickets, whose habits are widely different from those of grasshoppers, and which are found under stones, old logs, or dead herbage. The greatest quantity is taken in August and September. The average for the season is 2.42 per cent. Diptera (flies) reach the rather surprisingly large figure of 6.23 per cent. These insects are usually not eaten to any great extent except by flycatchers and swallows, which take their food upon the wing. The flies eaten by the olive-back are mostly crane flies (Tipulidæ) or March flies (_Bibio_), both in the adult and larval state. Crane flies are slow of wing and frequent shady places. The larvæ of both groups are developed in moist ground, and often in colonies of several hundred. With these habits it is not surprising that they fall an easy prey to the thrushes. Hemiptera (bugs), a small but rather constant element of the food, were found in the stomachs collected every month, and in July reach 11.11 per cent. They were of the families of stinkbugs (Pentatomidæ), shield bugs (Scutelleridæ), tree hoppers (Membracidæ), leaf hoppers (Jassidæ), and cicadas. Some scales were found in one stomach. The total for the season is 3.76 per cent. A few insects not included in any of the foregoing categories make up 0.48 per cent of the food. Spiders, with a few millipeds, amount to 2.22 per cent, the lowest figure for this item of any bird of the genus _Hylocichla_. Snails, sowbugs, angleworms, etc. (0.32 per cent), complete the animal food. Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found: HYMENOPTERA. _Camponotus pennsylvanicus_ 1 _Tiphia inornata_ 1 COLEOPTERA. _Cychrus nitidicollis_ 1 _Cychrus stenostomus_ 1 _Notiophilus æneus_ 1 _Pterostichus sayi_ 1 _Pterotichus lustrans_ 1 _Amara interstitialis_ 1 _Triæna longula_ 1 _Agonoderus pallipes_ 1 _Silpha ramosa_ 1 _Staphylinus cinnamopterus_ 1 _Tachyporus californicus_ 1 _Chilocorus orbus_ 1 _Scymnus_ sp 1 _Hister americanus_ 1 _Ips quadriguttatus_ 4 _Cytilus sericeus_ 1 _Agriotes stabilis_ 1 _Podabrus flavicollis_ 2 _Podabrus modestus_ 2 _Silis lutea_ 1 _Telephorus carolinus_ 1 _Telephorus bilineatus_ 5 _Telephorus divisus_ 2 _Onthophagus hecate_ 1 _Onthophagus striatulus_ 1 _Onthophagus tuberculifrons_ 2 _Onthophagus_ sp 4 _Atænius abditus_ 1 _Aphodius hamatus_ 1 _Aphodius fimetarius_ 6 _Aphodius inquinatus_ 7 _Aphodius_ sp 6 _Geotrupes_ sp 1 _Dichelonycha elongata_ 2 _Lachnosterna hirticula_ 1 _Lachnosterna_ sp 12 _Anomala undulata_ 1 _Anomala_ sp 1 _Euphoria fulgida_ 1 _Donacia emarginata_ 1 _Hæmonia nigricornis_ 1 _Syneta pallida_ 1 _Leptinotarsa decemlineata_ 1 _Gastroidea_ sp 1 _Galerucella decora_ 1 _Diabrotica soror_ 1 _Diabrotica_ sp 1 _Gonioctena pallida_ 1 _Luperodes bivittatus_ 1 _Opatrinus notus_ 1 _Blapstinus metallicus_ 1 _Blapstinus mæstus_ 1 _Blapstinus_ sp 1 _Otiorhynchus ovatus_ 1 _Thinoxenus_ sp 1 _Cercopeus chrysorrhæus_ 1 _Barypithes pellucidus_ 1 _Sitones flavescens_ 1 _Sitones_ sp 1 _Phytonomus punctatus_ 2 _Pachylobius picivorus_ 1 _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 1 _Micromastus elegans_ 1 _Acalles clavatus_ 1 _Cryptorhynchus bisignatus_ 1 _Rhinoncus pyrrhopus_ 1 _Balaninus_ sp 3 _Sphenophorus parvulus_ 1 _Sphenophorus_ sp 1 _Scolytus muticus_ 1 LEPIDOPTERA. _Edema albifrons_ 1 TRICHOPTERA. _Phryganea californica_ 1 HEMIPTERA. _Myodocha serripes_ 1 _Sinea diadema_ 1 This list of insects contains a considerable number of injurious species and some that at various times and places have become decided pests. Such are the Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_), the spotted squash beetle (_Diabrotica soror_), the cloverleaf weevil (_Phytonomus punctatus_), and the various species of _Lachnosterna_, the parent of the destructive white grubs. Many others are plant feeders and may increase to such an extent as to inflict great damage upon agriculture. _Vegetable food._--The vegetable food of the olive-backed thrush consists of small fruit. The bird has a weak bill and can not break through the tough skin of the larger kinds. In the cherry orchards of California the writer many times observed the western subspecies of this bird, the russet-back, on the ground pecking at cherries that had been bitten open and dropped by linnets and grosbeaks. Blackberries and raspberries have a very delicate skin and are successfully managed by weak-billed birds, so that all the records of domestic fruit eaten by the eastern form relate to these berries, and it is probable that in most cases the fruit was not cultivated. The total of cultivated fruit for the season is 12.63 per cent of the whole food, but if we consider the eastern subspecies alone this item would practically disappear. Wild fruit (19.73 per cent) is eaten regularly and in a goodly quantity in every month after April. Weed seeds and a few miscellaneous items of vegetable food (4.04 per cent) close the account. Following is a list of vegetable foods so far as identified and the number of stomachs in which found. White cedar seeds (_Thuja occidentalis_) 1 Red cedar berries (_Juniperus communis_) 2 False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina trifolia_) 3 Greenbrier (_Smilax tamnifolia_) 1 Cat brier (_Smilax_ sp.) 1 Hackberry (_Celtis occidentalis_) 3 Mulberry (_Morus_ sp.) 2 Fig (_Ficus_ sp.) 3 Pale persicaria (_Polygonum lapathifolium_) 1 Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 9 Mountain ash (_Pyrus americana_) 1 Service berries (_Amelanchier_ sp.) 1 Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 67 Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 15 Bird cherries (_Prunus Pennsylvanica_) 2 Domestic cherries (_Prunus cerasus_) 29 Domestic plum (_Prunus domestica_) 2 Apricot (_Prunus armeniaca_) 3 Filaree (_Erodium_ sp.) 1 Poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_) 4 Staghorn sumac (_Rhus hirta_) 2 Dwarf sumac (_Rhus copallina_) 3 Other sumac (_Rhus_ sp.) 4 Pepper tree (_Schinus molle_) 1 American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 1 Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_) 1 Coffee berries (_Rhamnus californicus_) 3 Woodbine (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 10 Frost grape (_Vitis cordifolia_) 6 Spikenard (_Aralia racemosa_) 2 Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 7 Kinnikinnik (_Cornus amomum_) 2 Red osier (_Cornus stolonifera_) 1 Panicled cornel (_Cornus paniculata_) 3 Dogwood unidentified (_Cornus_ sp.) 6 Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 Three-flowered nightshade (_Solanum triflorum_) 1 Nightshade unidentified (_Solanum_ sp.) 8 Black twinberries (_Lonicera involucrata_) 2 Honeysuckle berries (_Lonicera_ sp.) 2 Snowberries (_Symphoricarpos racemosus_) 2 Dockmackie (_Viburnum acerifolium_) 1 Arrowwood (_Viburnum_ sp.) 1 Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 6 Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 5 Blue elderberries (_Sambucus glauca_) 15 Tarweed (_Madia_ sp.) 1 Fruit pulp not further identified 17 _Food of young of russet-backed thrush._--Before concluding the discussion of this species it will be of interest to note the results obtained from an investigation of stomachs of 25 nestlings of the russet-back taken in June and July when the birds were from two to eleven days old. These were from eight broods, ranging from three to five nestlings to the brood. The percentage of animal food of the young (92.60 per cent) is considerably higher than that of the parent birds. The distribution of the animal food is as follows: Caterpillars were found in every stomach but seven and aggregated nearly 27 per cent; beetles, including the useful Carabidæ (7.7 per cent), are irregularly distributed to the extent of 22 per cent; other more or less harmful species included five families of (Hemiptera) bugs, 13.8 per cent, viz, stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, shield bugs, and cicadas; ants and a few other Hymenoptera amount to 12 per cent, and spiders the same. These latter were mostly harvestmen or daddy longlegs (Phalangidæ). The remainder (6 per cent) included a few miscellaneous insects. Only three stomachs contained remains of grasshoppers. Carabid beetles were eaten by the young birds to the extent of 7.7 per cent, which is more than three times the amount eaten by the adults, a remarkable fact when is considered that these insects are very hard shelled, thus seemingly unsuited for young birds. The vegetable food consisted of fruit (6.8 per cent), mainly blackberries or raspberries, found in 11 stomachs, and twinberries in 1, and two or three other items, including a seed of filaree and some rubbish. From the irregular variety of food in the different stomachs, it would seem that the parents make little selection, but fill the gaping mouths of their young with the nearest obtainable supply. In addition to the examination of stomach contents of nestlings two nests were carefully and regularly watched, and from these it was determined that the parent birds fed each nestling 48 times in 14 hours of daylight. This means 144 feedings as a day's work for the parents for a brood of three nestlings, and that each stomach was filled to its full capacity several times daily, an illustration that the digestion and assimilation of birds, especially the young, are constant and very rapid. Experiments in raising young birds have proved that they thrive best when fed small quantities at short intervals rather than greater quantities at longer periods. Aside from the insects consumed by the parents, a brood of three young birds will thus each require the destruction of at least 144 insects in a day and probably a very much greater number. _Summary._--In a résumé of the food of the olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes one is impressed with the fact that they come in contact with the products of industry but rarely. The olive-back's food habits infringe upon the dominion of man but little. The bird lives among men, but not with them. The western form, the russet-back, comes more into relations with the cultivated products because it visits orchards and partakes freely of the fruit. Even then the damage is slight, as much of the fruit eaten is that fallen to the ground. Moreover, while the adult bird is feeding upon fruit a nestful of young are being reared upon insects which must be largely taken from the orchard, thus not only squaring the account but probably overbalancing it in favor of the farmer. HERMIT THRUSHES. (_Hylocichla guttata_ subspp.) The hermit thrush of the subspecies _H. g. pallasi_ inhabits the Eastern States in winter as far north as Massachusetts and breeds from the mountains of Maryland and Pennsylvania and from northern Michigan and central Minnesota northward to Alaska. Several other subspecies occupy the Pacific coast region in suitable localities--that is, in the higher and more wooded sections, as this bird, like all of the genus _Hylocichla_, does not live in treeless or arid regions. In the East the bird is a late fall migrant and may often be seen sitting silent and alone on a branch in the forest in late October or even in November, when the great army of migrants have passed on to the South. While a beautiful songster, the species is so quiet and unobtrusive that by sight it is entirely unknown to many. Inquiry into the food habits of this bird covered 551 stomachs, collected in 29 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and representing every month of the year, though all the stomachs taken in winter were collected in the Southern States, the District of Columbia, and California. In the primary analysis the food was found to consist of 64.51 per cent of animal matter to 35.49 per cent of vegetable. The former is mostly composed of insects with some spiders, while the latter is largely fruit, chiefly wild species. _Animal food._--Beetles constitute 15.13 per cent of the food. Of these 2.98 per cent are of the useful family, Carabidæ. The remainder are mostly harmful. Scarabæidæ, the larvæ of which are the white grubs that destroy the roots of so many plants, were eaten to the extent of 3.44 per cent. Snout beetles, among the most harmful of insects, were taken to the extent of 3.13 per cent. Among these was the notorious plum curculio (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_) found in two stomachs taken in the District of Columbia in April of different years. Two other species of the same genus also were found, as well as the clover weevil (_Epicærus imbricatus_). The Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_) and the striped squash beetle (_Diabrotica vittata_), with a number of other species of less notoriety, were found in several stomachs. Thus, in spite of the bird's retiring habits, it comes in contact with some of the pests of cultivation. [Illustration: B2085-73 Fig. 2.--Hermit thrush (_Hylocichla guttata_).] The ants destroyed--12.46 per cent of the food--keep up the reputation of thrushes as ant eaters. They were taken constantly every month, with the greatest number from May to September; a falling off in July is partly accounted for by the fact that more fruit is taken in that month. Other Hymenoptera (bees and wasps) were eaten to the extent of 5.41 per cent, a surprising amount for a bird that feeds so largely upon the ground, as these insects are usually of fleet wing and live in sunshine and open air. Caterpillars, eaten in every month and mostly in goodly quantities, appear to be a favorite food of the hermit thrush. December is the month of least consumption (2.75 per cent), while the most were eaten in June (17.08 per cent). The average for the year is 9.54 per cent. Hemiptera (bugs) seem to be eaten whenever found, as they appear in the food of every month, but rather irregularly and not in large quantities. The greatest consumption was in June (9.17 per cent), but July, September, and December show the least (less than 1 per cent). The total for the year is 3.63 per cent. Of the six families represented, the Pentatomidæ, or stink bugs, predominate. These highly flavored insects are eaten by most insectivorous birds often, but usually in small quantities. Diptera (flies) comprise 3.02 per cent of the food of the hermit thrush. The record shows, however, that nearly all of them are either crane flies (Tipulidæ) and their eggs and larvæ, or March flies (_Bibio_) and their larvæ. Over 150 of the latter were found in one stomach. Both of these families of flies lay their eggs in the ground, which accounts for their consumption by ground-feeding birds. Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are eaten by the hermit thrush to the extent of 6.32 per cent of its food. While this figure is not remarkable, it is the highest for any of the genus. These birds are fond of dark moist nooks among trees and bushes and do not feed extensively in those dry sunshiny places so much frequented by grasshoppers. A close inspection of the food record shows that the Orthoptera eaten by the thrushes are mostly crickets, which live in shadier and moister places than those where grasshoppers abound. A few miscellaneous insects (0.27 per cent) close the insect account. Spiders and myriapods (7.47 per cent) seem to constitute a very acceptable article of diet, as they amount to a considerable percentage in nearly every month, and in May rise to 20.79 per cent. A few miscellaneous animals, as sowbugs, snails, and angleworms, make up the balance of the animal food (1.26 per cent). Following is a list of insects so far as identified and the number of stomachs in which found: HYMENOPTERA. _Tiphia inornata_ 2 COLEOPTERA. _Elaphrus_ sp 1 _Notiophilus semistriatus_ 1 _Scarites subterraneus_ 1 _Dyschirius pumilis_ 1 _Pterostichus patruelis_ 1 _Pterostichus_ sp 1 _Amara_ sp 1 _Chlænius pennsylvanicus_ 2 _Stenolophus_ sp 1 _Anisodactylus agilis_ 1 _Tropisternus limbalis_ 2 _Hydrocharis obtusatus_ 1 _Sphæridium lecontei_ 1 _Ptomaphagus consobrinus_ 1 _Anisotoma valida_ 1 _Megilla maculata_ 1 _Anatis 15-maculata_ 1 _Psyllobora tædata_ 1 _Brachycantha ursina_ 1 _Endomychus biguttatus_ 1 _Cryptophagus_ sp 1 _Hister marginicollis_ 1 _Hister americanus_ 1 _Saprinus fimbriatus_ 1 _Carpophilus hemipterus_ 1 _Perthalycra murrayi_ 1 _Ips quadriguttatus_ 3 _Cytilus sericeus_ 2 _Cytilus_ sp 1 _Byrrhus kirbyi_ 1 _Byrrhus cyclophorus_ 1 _Cryptohypnus bicolor_ 2 _Drasterius dorsalis_ 1 _Dolopius lateralis_ 1 _Melanotus_ sp 2 _Podabrus tomentosus_ 1 _Canthon_ sp 1 _Onthophagus tuberculifrons_ 1 _Onthophagus_ sp 3 _Ægialia lacustris_ 1 _Rhyssemus scaber_ 1 _Atænius abditus_ 1 _Atænius cognatus_ 1 _Atænius_ sp 1 _Aphodius fimetarius_ 11 _Aphodius granarius_ 1 _Aphodius rugifrons_ 1 _Aphodius inquinatus_ 9 _Aphodius pardalis_ 1 _Aphodius prodromus_ 4 _Aphodius crassiusculus_ 1 _Aphodius_ sp 11 _Geotrupes semipunctata_ 1 _Dichelonycha_ sp 1 _Lachnosterna_ sp 17 _Chrysomela pulchra_ 3 _Lema nigrovittata_ 1 _Chlamys plicata_ 1 _Myochrous denticollis_ 2 _Xanthonia 10-notata_ 1 _Calligrapha scalaris_ 1 _Leptinotarsa decemlineata_ 1 _Phædon viridis_ 1 _Diabrotica vittata_ 1 _Odontota rubra_ 1 _Odontota_ sp 1 _Haltica torquata_ 1 _Crepidodera helxines_ 1 _Syneta ferruginea_ 1 _Systena elongata_ 1 _Chætocnema pulicaria_ 1 _Psylliodes punctulata_ 1 _Chelymorpha cribraria_ 1 _Opatrinus notus_ 1 _Opatrinus aciculatus_ 1 _Blapstinus metallicus_ 1 _Blapstinus rufipes_ 1 _Salpingus virescens_ 1 _Anthicus pubescens_ 1 _Notoxus monodon_ 1 _Notoxus denudatum_ 1 _Notoxus_ sp 1 _Attelabus rhois_ 1 _Rhigopsis effracta_ 1 _Cercopeus chrysorrhœus_ 4 _Pandetetejus hilaris_ 1 _Barypithes pellucidus_ 1 _Sitones hispidulus_ 4 _Sitones flavescens_ 1 _Trichalophus alternatus_ 1 _Apion_ sp 1 _Listronotus latiusculus_ 1 _Listronotus inæqualipennis_ 1 _Listronotus_ sp 1 _Macrops_ sp 2 _Smicronyx corniculatus_ 1 _Trachodes ptinoides_ 1 _Conotrachelus nenuphar_ 2 _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 5 _Conotrachelus erinaceus_ 1 _Rhinoncus pyrrhopus_ 1 _Onychobaris insidiosus_ 1 _Balaninus nasicus_ 1 _Balaninus_ sp 1 _Sphenophorus parvulus_ 1 _Sphenophorus_ sp 1 _Dendroctonus terebrans_ 1 HEMIPTERA. _Podops cinctipes_ 1 _Nezara hilaris_ 6 _Arhaphe cicindeloides_ 1 _Corimelæna denudata_ 1 _Myodocha serripes_ 2 ORTHOPTERA. _Amblycorypha rotundifolia_ 1 _Œcanthus niveus_ 1 _Vegetable food._--The vegetable diet of the hermit thrush consists largely of fruit, as with most birds of this group. As might be expected of a bird of such retiring habits, but little of the fruit eaten can be classed as cultivated. In September 5.45 per cent was so considered, but in most months the quantity was small, and in March, April, and May was completely wanting. The total for the year as found in 17 stomachs is 1.20 per cent. One stomach contained strawberries, one grapes, one figs, one currants, two apples, and the rest _Rubus_ fruit, i. e., blackberries or raspberries. These last as well as the strawberries were probably wild. Of the wild fruit (26.19 per cent) 46 species were identified with a reasonable degree of certainty in 243 stomachs. A few seeds, ground-up vegetable matter not further identified, and rubbish make up the rest of the vegetable food (8.10 per cent). Among the seeds were some of the various species of poisonous _Rhus_. These were found in 18 stomachs, mostly from California. The dissemination of these seeds is unfortunate from the standpoint of husbandry, but many birds engage in it, as the waxy coating of the seeds is nutritious, especially in winter, when fruit and insects are not easily obtainable. Following is a list of the components of the vegetable food so far as identified, and the number of stomachs in which found: Cedar berries (_Juniperus virginiana_) 2 False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina racemosa_) 4 False spikenard (_Smilacina_ sp.) 1 Greenbrier (_Smilax walteri_) 2 Cat brier (_Smilax bona-nox_) 2 Laurel-leaved greenbrier (_Smilax laurifolia_) 1 Other greenbriers (_Smilax_ sp.) 11 Wax myrtle (_Myrica cerifera_) 1 Bayberries (_Myrica carolinensis_) 7 Chinquapin (_Castanea pumila_) 1 Western hackberries (_Celtis occidentalis_) 5 Other hackberries (_Celtis_ sp.) 3 Figs (_Ficus_ sp.) 1 Mulberries (_Morus_ sp.) 1 Mistletoe berries (_Phoradendron villosum_) 2 Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 16 Miner's lettuce (_Montia perfoliata_) 1 Sassafras berries (_Sassafras varifolium_) 2 Spice berries (_Benzoin æstivale_) 1 Currants (_Ribes_ sp.) 3 Sweet gum (_Liquidambar styraciflua_) 2 Chokeberries (_Pyrus arbutifolia_) 1 Service berries (_Amelanchier canadensis_) 9 Hawthorn (_Cratægus_ sp.) 1 Strawberries (_Fragaria_ sp.) 1 Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 5 Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 Wild black cherries (_Prunus scrotina_) 3 Three-seeded mercury (_Acalypha virginica_) 1 Staghorn sumach (_Rhus typhina_) 5 Smooth sumach (_Rhus glabra_) 5 Dwarf sumach (_Rhus copallina_) 7 Poison ivy (_Rhus radicans_) 3 Poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_) 15 Laurel-leaved sumach (_Rhus laurina_) 2 Other sumachs (_Rhus_ sp.) 12 Pepper berries (_Schinus molle_) 15 American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 9 Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_) 12 Ink berries (_Ilex glabra_) 9 Other hollies (_Ilex_ sp.) 7 Strawberry bush (_Euonymus americanus_) 1 Roxbury waxwork (_Celastrus scandens_) 1 Supple-Jack (_Berchemia volubilis_) 2 Coffee berries (_Rhamnus californicus_) 1 Woodbine (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 10 Frost grapes (_Vitis cordifolia_) 2 Wild grapes (_Vitis_ sp.) 1 Wild sarsaparilla (_Aralia nudicaulis_) 1 Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 32 Rough-leaved dogwood (_Cornus asperifolia_) 2 Black gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 2 Checkerberry (_Gaultheria procumbens_) 1 Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 Blueberries (_Vaccinium_ sp.) 12 Black nightshade (_Solanum nigrum_) 4 Bittersweet (_Solanum_ sp.) 4 Goose grass (_Galium aparine_) 1 Honeysuckle (_Lonicera_ sp.) 2 Indian currant (_Symphoricarpos orbiculatus_) 1 Downy arrowwood (_Viburnum pubescens_) 1 Nanny berries (_Viburnum lentago_) 2 Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 4 Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 3 Fruit not further identified 60 In looking over this list one is impressed with the fact that the taste of human beings for fruit differs markedly from that of birds. For example, _Rhus_ seeds are hard and have little pulp to render them palatable or nutritious. They are usually passed through the alimentary canal of birds or regurgitated unharmed, and the slight outer coating alone is digested. In the case of the poisonous species, this outer coating is a white wax or tallow which appears to be very nutritious, for these species are eaten much more extensively than the nonpoisonous ones. The seed itself is rarely broken in the stomach to get any nutriment it may contain. But in spite of these facts _Rhus_ seeds were found in 49 stomachs, while fruits of huckleberries and blueberries, which are delicious to the human taste, were found in only 13 stomachs; and blackberries and raspberries, highly esteemed by man, were found in only 5 stomachs. Next to _Rhus_ the fruit most eaten was the dogwood berry, found in 34 stomachs, yet from a human estimate these berries are distasteful and contain such large seeds that they afford but very little actual food. _Summary._--The hermit thrush, as it name indicates, is of solitary habits and neither seeks human companionship nor molests cultivated products. It destroys nothing indirectly helpful to man, as beneficial insects, but aids in the destruction of the myriad hosts of insect life which at all times threaten vegetation. While it is not easy to point out any especially useful function of the hermit thrush, it fills its place in the economy of nature, from which it should not be removed. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY * * * * * * * Transcriber's Notes The text presented is essentially that in the original printed document with the exception of some minor punctuation changes and the three typographical corrections detailed below. The original version also had two copies of the Table of Contents. The second copy which appeared on Page 1 was removed. Many of the tables which were presented in a two-column format and sometimes split between two pages were reformatted into one long table. Typographical Corrections Page 1 : thrust => thrush Page 10 : COLEOFTERA => COLEOPTERA " : Cormybites => Corymbites * * * * * * * *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES OF THE UNITED STATES *** Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed. Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. START: FULL LICENSE THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license. Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works 1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. 1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. 1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others. 1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States. 1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: 1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed: This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. 1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. 1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. 1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. 1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License. 1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. 1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. 1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that: • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.” • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works. • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work. • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. 1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. 1.F. 1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. 1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. 1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem. 1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. 1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. 1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause. Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life. Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS. The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate. While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate. International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate. Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org. This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.