The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Writer's Desk Book This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: The Writer's Desk Book Author: William Dana Orcutt Release date: January 19, 2017 [eBook #54025] Most recently updated: June 25, 2020 Language: English Credits: E-text prepared by MWS, RichardW, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WRITER'S DESK BOOK *** E-text prepared by MWS, RichardW, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 54025-h.htm or 54025-h.zip: (https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/54025/pg54025-images.html) or (https://www.gutenberg.org/files/54025/54025-h.zip) Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive. See https://archive.org/details/writersdeskbookb00orcurich Transcriber’s note: Original printed page numbers are shown like this: {52}. Original small capitals are now uppercase. Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). Text enclosed by right- and left-pointing double angle quotation marks is in bold face («bold»). Some characters might not display properly in this UTF-8 text file (e.g., empty squares). If so, the reader should consult the html version or the original page images noted above. A more detailed discussion of this problem will be found in the transcriber's note at the end of the book. THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK * * * * * * OTHER BOOKS BY MR. ORCUTT GOOD OLD DORCHESTER. _A Narrative History_ PRINCESS KALLISTO, _and other Tales of the Fairies_ ROBERT CAVELIER. _A Novel_ THE FLOWER OF DESTINY. _A Novel_ THE SPELL. _A Novel_ THE LEVER. _A Novel_ THE MOTH. _A Novel_ * * * * * * The Writer’s Desk Book _Being a reference volume upon questions of_ PUNCTUATION · CAPITALIZATION · SPELLING · DIVISION OF WORDS · INDENTION · SPACING ITALICS · ABBREVIATIONS ACCENTS · NUMERALS · FAULTY DICTION · LETTER WRITING POSTAL REGULATIONS · _Etc_ · _Etc_ _By_ WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT _for many years Head of The University Press · Cambridge · Now associated with_ THE PLIMPTON PRESS · _Norwood Mass._ New York · FREDERICK·A·STOKES COMPANY · Publishers · MCMXIII Copyright, 1912, by Frederick A. Stokes Co. Second Edition [Illustration: FAS Co. _September, 1912_] The · Plimpton · Press [W · D · O] Norwood · Mass · U · S · A CONTENTS PAGE PUNCTUATION 1 Importance of correct punctuation — punctuation marks and accents — the comma — the semicolon — the colon — the period — the dash — the exclamation — the interrogation — quotation-marks — parentheses — brackets — the apostrophe — the hyphen CAPITALIZATION 20 Of religious terms — of proper names — of titles — of institutional terms — of references — of ordinals — in general — use of small capitals SPELLING 31 Importance of adopting an authority — basic rules for numbers and diphthongs — simple rules of orthography — accented words — participles — variable endings — list of variable spellings COMPOUND WORDS 45 General theory — changes in modern uses — rules and examples DIVISION OF WORDS 52 Rules and examples INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING 55 Various forms used in display — en échelon — irregular — hanging — reverse — lozenge — blocked — definition of the paragraph — its value — kinds of paragraphs — length of paragraph SPACING 59 General principles — kerned letters — examples of varying spaces ITALIC 62 Its origin — its uses — when required and when not ABBREVIATIONS 65 Of dates — of proper names — of titles — commercial — of given names — geographical — miscellaneous — scriptural — monetary signs — mathematical signs — medical signs NUMERALS 93 History of their evolution — lists CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION 99 Dr. Campbell’s canons — good usage — list of words and phrases commonly misused LETTER WRITING 114 Its importance — business, informal, formal — the heading — the address — the salutation — the text — the complimentary close — the signature — the envelope — postal cards — in general — examples POSTAL INFORMATION 129 Classes of mail — parcel post — wrapping of mail matter — forwarding mail matter — what cannot be mailed — concealed matter — domestic rates — foreign rates — exceptions — foreign parcels post — money order fees — registered mail — special delivery system — postal distances and time from New York City APPENDIX 142 Standard time — values of foreign coins — comparative thermometers — weights and measures — British weights and measures INDEX 163 { 1} THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK {2} PUNCTUATION MARKS, ACCENTS, ETC. , Comma ; Semicolon : Colon . Period ? Interrogation ! Exclamation () Parentheses [] Brackets ’ Apostrophe - Hyphen ´ Acute accent ` Grave accent ^ Circumflex accent ~ Circumflex or tilde ̄ Long or macron ˘ Short or breve ¨ Dieresis ç Cedilla ‸ Caret “ ” Quotation-marks {} Brace * * * Ellipsis . . . Ellipsis, leaders * Asterisk † Dagger ‡ Double dagger § Section ‖ Parallels ¶ Paragraph ☞ Index * * * Asterisks The Section-mark is derived from the first letters of the words _signum sectionis_, meaning sign of the section, the old-fashioned _∫_ being used. The paragraph mark ¶ is the roman letter P reversed, with black and white interchanged. {3} PUNCTUATION In early manuscripts the words followed one another without punctuation points, thus making it difficult for readers to separate the ideas into the same parts as originally intended by the authors. Later they were separated by dots or other marks, which method obtained in the earliest printed volumes. Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1490–1515) and his family were the pioneers in establishing a basis for systematic punctuation. From this chaotic condition definite rules have gradually been evolved for general guidance, but judgment and taste must always be the final guides to correct punctuation. Assistance may be obtained by observing a few simple rules which are based upon the idea that the purpose of every punctuation mark is to indicate to the eye the construction of the sentence in which it occurs. No one of the various punctuation marks should ever be used exclusively or to excess, for each one has some specific duty which it can perform better than any other. It is always wise to question why, in a given case, a punctuation mark should be put in rather than why it should be left out, for of the two evils an over-punctuated book is the more objectionable. “Close punctuation,” {4} characterized by the use of many commas, prevailed in the English of the eighteenth century and is today the best French usage, but “open punctuation,” which avoids the use of any point not clearly required by the construction, is now favored by the best English writers. THE COMMA Dean Alford once wrote, in disgust, “The great enemies to understanding anything in our language are the commas,” and prided himself that in the course of editing the Greek text of the New Testament, he destroyed more than a thousand of these “enemies.” The chief use of this, the smallest degree of separation, is to define the particles and minor clauses of a sentence. It should always be placed inside the quotation-marks when used in connection with them. The comma is required: 1. Before a conjunction when the preceding word is qualified by an expression which is not intended to qualify the word following the conjunction: e.g., _He suddenly started, and fell_. 2. Between adjectives and adverbs when not connected by a conjunction: _He possessed a calm, exasperating manner_; but the comma may be omitted between two adjectives when the idea is close: e.g., _A clear cold day_. {5} 3. After adjectives and adverbs where three or more are used in succession: e.g., _The man possessed a calm, cynical, exasperating manner_. 4. In a succession of three or more words where the conjunctive _and_ is used before the last one: e.g., _He was tall, thin, and pale_. 5. When the word after the conjunction is followed by an expression which qualifies that word alone: e.g., _’Twas certain he could write, and cipher too._ 6. After inverted phrases and clauses: e.g., _Discouraged by constant opposition, he resigned his position_. Short phrases of similar nature do not require the comma: e.g., _Of his intentions there could be no doubt_. 7. To separate the adverbs _however_, _now_, _then_, _too_, _perhaps_, and _indeed_ from the context when they are used as conjunctions: e.g., _This idea, however, had not occurred to him_. When these words are used as adverbs, the comma is not required: e.g., _It must be done, however contrary it may be to our present advantage_. 8. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the context: e.g., _His intentions, though at first concealed, became obvious_. 9. After the last word of a series composed of several words not connected by conjunctions: e.g., _The men, the women, the children even, were up in arms_. {6} 10. Between words or phrases in apposition with each other: e.g., _I refer to Mr. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management_. But when used as a single phrase or a compound name, no comma is required: e.g., _The poet Tennyson was born in 1809_. 11. Between the name of a person and his title or degree: e.g., _Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus_; _Woodrow Wilson, LL.D._ 12. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction: e.g., _The door was barricaded, but we managed to open it_. 13. Between relative clauses which are explanatory of an antecedent, or which present an additional thought: e.g., _Her voice, which was charming in her own drawing-room, was not powerful enough for a public auditorium_. But relative clauses which limit the meaning of the antecedent (called _restrictive_) do not require the comma: e.g., _He did that which he was obliged to do_. 14. Between two clauses, one of which depends on the other, and usually introduced by _if_, _when_, _unless_, _though_, _where_, _wherever_, etc.: e.g., _If we stand together, success is assured_. If the clauses are closely connected both in sense and construction, the comma is not required: e.g., _William was ten years old when his father moved to Boston_. 15. In compound sentences, to separate the co-ordinate clause when closely related and simple in construction: e.g., _He was_ {7} _courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors_. 16. To indicate an ellipsis: e.g., _Price, seventy-five cents_. 17. To separate vocative words or expressions from the context: e.g., _I leave it, gentlemen, to your sense of right and wrong_. 18. Before _not_, when introducing an antithetical clause: e.g., _He devoted his attention to the matter before him, not because he was interested, but because he could not avoid the issue_. 19. To separate similar or identical words, even though not required by the sense or grammatical construction: e.g., _I tell you, you are wrong_. 20. To separate two numbers: e.g., _March 1, 1912_; _In 1911, 869 cases were reported_. 21. To separate a quotation or similar brief expression from the preceding part of the sentence: e.g., _To quote the proverb, “Look before you leap.”_ 22. Before the word _of_, connecting a proper name with residence or position: e.g., _Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts_. 23. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when informal: e.g., _My dear Mother_, but, when formal, _Gentlemen_: The comma is not required: 1. Before or after conjunctions such as _and_, _or_, _nor_, _but_, and _yet_ when employed to {8} connect two words belonging to the same part of speech and in the same construction: e.g., _Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote_. When words are not in pairs, the comma must be used: e.g., _Sink, die, or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote_. 2. Before or after conjunctions when they are employed to connect two expressions in the same construction used as if belonging to the same part of speech: e.g., _The new system of management guarantees accuracy in getting orders under way and promptness in completing them_. 3. Before the conjunction _too_ when placed at the end of a sentence: e.g., _I hope that you will come too_. 4. Where there are two or more words or phrases having a conjunction between each two: e.g., _Lest he should be tempted and yield and thus be false_. 5. After an adjective that describes or limits another adjective together with the noun following: e.g., _He had on a pair of torn gray corduroy breeches_. 6. When a pronoun is used with a noun for emphasis: e.g., _Lafcadio Hearn himself could not have described the scene more vividly_. THE SEMICOLON The semicolon is used to indicate a pause or a degree of separation next greater than {9} the comma. Caxton was the first to introduce into English printing the Roman points of punctuation as used in Italy. The comma replaced the unwieldly |, and the colon was an added refinement, but for some unexplained reason he steadfastly opposed the introduction of the semicolon. This mark should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless forming a part of the quotation itself. Use the semicolon: 1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex in construction or contain commas: e.g., _He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, but not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors_. 2. To connect successive sentences: e.g., _His face never showed an emotion other than that which he wished to have seen there; the mouth was protected by his heavy mustache; his eyes penetrated the object on which they fixed themselves_. Shorter sentences should be divided by commas. 3. Between expressions in a series which have a common dependence upon words at the beginning or end of a sentence: e.g., _The half-sick man is a nuisance to his entire household: he is not ill enough to accept restraint; he is too ill to be reasonable_. 4. To separate passages containing chapters in scriptural references: e.g., _Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16_. {10} THE COLON The colon is used between clauses of compound sentences, additional clauses without a conjunction, formal quotations, and particulars in apposition with a general term, to mark the necessity of a pause greater than that indicated by the semicolon and less than that indicated by the period. The colon is much less used today than formerly, as modern writers employ shorter and less formal sentences than those of a century ago. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless included as a part of the quotation itself. Use the colon: 1. Before _as_, _viz._, _that is_, _namely_, etc., when these words introduce a series of simple particular terms in apposition with a general term: e.g., _There are three genders in Latin: namely, masculine, feminine, and neuter_. 2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two or more clauses divided by semicolons: e.g., _Vallie was nervous in his temperment; the Captain was calm and self-contained: Vallie was the product of the city; the Captain was the product of the world_. 3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause enlarging upon the same idea without a conjunction: e.g., _Imagination_ {11} _is essential to business success: without imagination, plans for future development cannot intelligently be made_. 4. Before particulars definitely stated: e.g., _These new duties of the management are grouped under four heads: first, they develop a science for each element of a man’s work_, etc. 5. Before formal quotations: e.g., _In a recent speech attributed to you by the daily press, you are reported to have used these words: “Good principles follow good habits.”_ 6. After the formal salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter: e.g., _Gentlemen_:[1] When less formality is desired, the comma may be used: e.g., _My dear Mother_, [1] See page 117, §§ 2, 3, 4. 7. Between the hours and minutes in indicating time: e.g., _11 : 30_ A.M. 8. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references: e.g., _Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16_. 9. Between the city of publication and the name of publisher in literary references: e.g., _“The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (New York: Harpers)_. THE PERIOD Always place the period inside the quotation-marks and inside the parentheses when parenthetical matter forms an independent sentence and is not a part of the preceding sentence. {12} Use the period: 1. After every abbreviation. 2. To set off decimal numbers from whole numbers. 3. After every complete sentence unless the sentence is interrogative or exclamatory. 4. To indicate an ellipsis, repeating the mark three or more times separated by spaces: e.g., . . . Do not use the period: 1. After running-heads. 2. After cut-in side-notes. 3. After centered head-lines. 4. After box-heads in tables. 5. After legends beneath illustrations. 6. After subheads set in separate lines. 7. After date-lines at the top of letters. 8. After signatures at the end of letters. 9. At end of lines in display composition, such as titles,[2] blocked headings, etc. 10. After roman numerals, even though they possess the value of ordinals: e.g., _Vol. VIII_; _George V is king of England_. [2] First adopted by William Pickering, the London publisher, about 1850. THE DASH The dash is more misused and overused than any of the other punctuation marks. The following rules define its proper use: {13} Use the dash: 1. Whenever the construction or the sense is suddenly changed or suspended: e.g., _You cannot believe — but I will not humiliate myself by asking the question_. 2. To connect extreme dates in specifying periods of time: e.g., _1912–1918_. 3. When the sentence is abruptly terminated: e.g., “_If he is alive, I can make him one from this time; and if — if —_” 4. To secure rhetorical emphasis: e.g., _We are ready — we are more than ready to meet the issue_. 5. To define verse references in the Bible: e.g., _Matt. 1:4–8_; or to indicate page references in a book: e.g., _See pp. 21–42_. 6. Between short, snappy sentences to increase the speed of the discourse: e.g., _Hullo! ho! the whole world’s asleep! — bring out the horses, — grease the wheels, — tie on the mail!_ 7. Between the subject-matter and its authority. 8. To indicate the omission of letters: e.g., _Mrs. B——_. 9. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding clause: e.g., _Courtesy and attention, patience and judgment, accuracy and carefulness — these are but a few of the elements which constitute successful business relations_. {14} 10. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence: e.g., _The question of hearing was seriously troubling the minister — they probably had heard too much_. * * * * * ¶ Dashes may be substituted for commas or marks of parenthesis before and after expressions having closer connection with the main sentence than could be indicated by marks of parenthesis: e.g., _They might have been talking for a quarter of an hour or more, when Monks — by which name the Jew had designated the strange man — said_, etc. ¶ Use the dash preceded by the colon before a long quotation forming a new paragraph. The dash is not otherwise used with other punctuation marks unless demanded by clearness. ¶ In France, printers use the dash as a frequent substitute for quotation-marks in dialogue, placing quotation-marks only at the beginning and the end, even though extended over several pages. THE EXCLAMATION The proper use of the exclamation-point lends force and vigor to language in expressing surprise or emotion, but when overused it cheapens intended pathos and thus defeats the writer’s purpose. It should always be placed {15} outside the quotation-marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself. The mark is formed from the word Io, signifying joy, written vertically ̥I. The exclamation-point is required: 1. At the end of a word or sentence to express strong emotion: e.g., _God forbid! “Mind that, Fagin!”_ 2. To indicate sarcasm or doubt on the part of the writer regarding the authenticity of a statement: e.g., “_For Brutus is an honorable man!_” 3. After exclamatory words. If the same interjection is repeated use the comma to separate the words, placing the exclamation-point only at the end, unless the intention is to make each of the repeated words emphatic: e.g., _“Oh! dear, dear, dear!” he exclaimed; “what an unfortunate memory you have!”_ ¶ Use great care in distinguishing between _Oh!_, an interjection expressing pain or surprise, and the vocative _O_, expressing a wish or an imprecation, which does not call for the exclamation-point: e.g., “_Oh! what damned minutes tells he o’er!_” and “_O that I had wings like a dove!_” THE INTERROGATION The interrogation-point is formed from the first and last letters of the Latin word _quaestio_ (_a question_) placed one over the other; as {16} ̥Q. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself. 1. Every sentence containing a direct question should close with an interrogation-point: e.g., _When can this order be shipped? We have received a letter which asks, “What date can you give us for shipping these goods?”_ 2. The interrogation-point is used to express doubt: e.g., _This volume is said to be bound in real (?) morocco_. 3. Indirect questions do not take the interrogation-point: e.g., _He inquired when it would be ready_. QUOTATION-MARKS 1. Enclose every direct quotation in double quotation-marks: e.g., _“I insist upon it,” he said; “there is no alternative.”_ 2. When a quotation of a passage from an author in his own words is run into the text it should be placed between quotation-marks. 3. Selections from different works by the same author, or from different authors, following each other without intervening original matter, or by reference to their sources, should be quoted. 4. When setting poetry the quotation-marks should overhang the beginning of the line. This should also be done when prose display matter is “blocked.” 5. Single quotes are used for quotations {17} within quotations; double quotes for quotations within single quotations. 6. Quotations should always include the phrase _etc._, and other ellipses whenever necessary to secure perfect clearness. 7. When a long quotation is made, including several paragraphs or verses, the quotation-mark should appear at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only. Quote: 1. A phrase or a word which is accompanied by its definition: e.g., _“Roman quote” means to place the matter indicated between quotations in roman type_. 2. Words or phrases in the text which are intended by the writer to possess an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning: e.g., _Her literary “salon” will long be remembered_; _This so-called “captain of industry.”_ 3. Titles of poems, books, etc.: e.g., _Longfellow’s “Belfry of Bruges.”_ 4. Serial titles: e.g., _the “Oriental Series,”_ _“Stories of Nations.”_ 5. Words to which the writer desires to attract attention: e.g., _The name of “Florence” immediately causes one to think of humanism._ 6. The names of ships, unless directed to italicize them. 7. The titles of works of art: e.g., _Raphael’s “Sistine Madonna.”_ {18} PARENTHESES 1. Marks of parenthesis are employed to separate from the rest of the sentence enclosed expressions having no essential connection: e.g., _I am unable to take this action (why do you urge me?) for reasons which I cannot now give_. 2. Figures or letters used to mark divisions in enumerations should be placed between parentheses: e.g., _There is a double reason for doing this: (a) it is the simplest form; (b) it is clearer for the reader_. BRACKETS Use brackets: 1. To enclose explanations or notes which are entirely independent of the balance of the sentence. Ordinarily these are comments, queries, directions, corrections, or criticisms inserted by some person other than the original writer: e.g., _Let them clamor to get them back again [cheers]_. 2. Rather than parentheses, to enclose drop-folios (folios placed at foot of page). 3. For enclosing parenthetical statements within parentheses. THE APOSTROPHE Use the apostrophe (or the apostrophe and the letter _s_): 1. To form the possessive case of common and proper nouns: e.g., _The nation’s {19} hope_; _For Jesus’ sake_; _James’s apple_; _For appearance’ sake_; _The boys’ camp_. 2. To form the plural of numerals, but the apostrophe alone for the plural of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant: e.g., _They passed by in two’s and four’s_; _She is one of those W.C.T.U.’s_; _That came from Perkins’_. Add _es_ or _s_ for monosyllabic proper nouns: e.g., _The Fosses_. In general, the pronunciation may be taken as a guide: if it is necessary to add a syllable to pronounce the possessive, use the double _s_: e.g., _Sickles’ corps_, not _Sickles’s_. 3. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of one or more letters in a contracted word, or the omission of figures in a number: e.g., _That’s ’ow ’twas_; _The spirit of ’76_; _High o’er our heads_; _I’ll_ for _I will_; _Don’t_ for _do not_, _sha’n’t_, etc. 4. The custom of substituting the apostrophe for the letter _e_ in poetry, at one time common, is now obsolete: e.g., _At ev’ry word a reputation dies_. This rule is disregarded when the letter is omitted for metrical reasons. THE HYPHEN The hyphen is employed to join words together which have not become single words through general usage, and where words are necessarily broken at the end of a line. It is also used to separate the syllables of words, in showing the correct pronunciation. (See Compound Words.) {20} CAPITALIZATION The original use of capitals in early manuscripts was for the purpose of variety and ornamentation, and their position was naturally subject to each writer’s individual taste. Good form now prescribes certain definite rules of capitalization as follows: RELIGIOUS TERMS Capitalize: 1. Titles of parables: e.g., _the parable of the Prodigal Son_, etc. 2. The books and divisions of the Bible and of other sacred books: e.g., _Old Testament_, _Book of Job_, etc. 3. Versions of the Bible: e.g., _King James Version_, _Revised Version_, etc. 4. The names of monastic orders and their members: e.g., _the Jesuits_, _the Black Friars_, etc. 5. The word _Church_ when it stands for the Church universal, or when part of a name: e.g., _the Church_, _the First Congregational Church_, _the Church of Rome_; but use lower case when referring to _church history_. 6. The word _Gospel_ when it refers to a book of the Bible, as the _Gospel of John_, or {21} the _Gospels_; but use lower case when referring to the _gospel message_. 7. Pronouns referring to _God_ or _Christ_ when used in direct address, or whenever the reference might otherwise be mistaken. 8. General biblical terms: e.g., _Priestly Code_, _Apostles’ Creed_, _Lord’s Prayer_, _Lord’s Supper_, _The Prophets_, and _Major and Minor Prophets_, when the collection of prophetical books is intended; but use lower case for the adjectives _biblical_ and _scriptural_. 9. Names applied to the Evil One, except when used as an expletive, or as a general name for any demon: e.g., “When the Devil was sick, the Devil a monk would be; When the Devil was well, the devil a monk was he.” 10. The word _Holy_ in the _Holy place_ and the _Holy of holies_. 11. The title of a psalm: e.g., the _Twenty-fourth Psalm_. 12. Capitalize the following: Almighty Authorized Version Common Version Creator Deity Father God Holy Bible Holy Spirit Holy Writ Jehovah Jesus Christ King Logos Lord Messiahship Messiah Messianic Passover Pentecost Redeemer Revised Version Sabbath Saviour Scriptures Son of Man Son Spirit The Trinity The Virgin Mary Word {22} Do not capitalize: 1. Words like _epistle_, _book_ (as the _book of Ruth_), _psalm_, or _psalms_ when not used distinctively, or _psalmist_ when the author of a single psalm is intended. 2. Words like _heaven_, _heavenly_, _hell_. 3. The words _fatherhood_ and _sonship_, _god_ when a pagan deity is referred to, _temple_. PROPER NAMES Capitalize: 1. Epithets employed as substitutes for or affixes to proper names: e.g., _Peter the Great_, _the Pretender_, etc. 2. The words _Pilgrim Fathers_ and _Early Fathers_ (referring to the Early Church), etc. 3. The word _Revolutionary_ when referring to the Revolution of 1776: e.g., _a Revolutionary soldier_. 4. The words _river_, _creek_, _brook_, _mountain_, _mine_, _district_, _county_, _channel_, when used as a part of a title: e.g., _Hudson River_, _Clear Brook_, _Rocky Mountains_; but use lower case when preceded by _the_: e.g., _the Hudson river_, etc. 5. Nouns designating definite geographical portions of the country or divisions of the world: e.g., _the North_, _the South_, _the West_, _the Old World_; and in the division of the Jewish Commonwealth, _the Northern Kingdom_, _the Southern Kingdom_. Also capitalize the adjectival nouns derived from them: e.g., _Northerner_, _Southerner_, _Oriental_, {23} _Occidental_. Use lower case for adjectives: e.g., _He is now in southern California_, etc. 6. Abstract ideas or terms when personified; e.g., _Pride flaunts herself_; _Nature gives willingly of her abundance_. 7. Names of streets, squares, parks, buildings, etc.: e.g., _Beacon Street_, _Copley Square_, _Franklin Park_, _Tremont Building_, etc. 8. Abbreviations of names of corporations and firms: e.g., _N.Y.C._ & _H.R.R.R._ 9. The abbreviation _Co._ (_Company_) in firm or corporation names. 10. The scientific names of divisions, orders, families, and genera in all botanical, geological, or zoölogical copy: e.g., _Ichneumon Fly_ (_Thalessa lunator_), _Reptilia_, _Vertebrata_, etc. 11. The days of the week and the months of the year, but use lower case for the seasons, unless personified or referred to specifically: e.g., _It was a bright spring day_; but, _Spring, beautiful Spring_; _the Spring of 1911_, etc. 12. The popular names of the bodies of the solar system (except _sun_, _moon_, _stars_, _earth_): e.g., _the Dipper_, _the Milky Way_, _Venus_, etc. 13. In botanical and zoölogical copy, the names of species if derived from proper names or from generic names, but in geological and medical matter use lower case for the names of species, even though derived from proper names: e.g., _Clover-root Borer_, _Hylesinus trifolii_, _Pterygomatopus schmidti_. {24} 14. Capitalize the following: Articles of Confederation Bill of Rights Commonwealth (Cromwell’s) Commune Constitution Crusades Hundred Years’ War Inquisition Magna Charta Middle Ages Reformation Renaissance Restoration Revolution of July Seven Years’ War Stone Age Do not capitalize: 1. Words derived from proper names and their derivatives when such words are so familiarly used as to lose the significance and personality of their origin: e.g., _fletcherize_, _macadamize_, _quixotic_, _italicize_, etc. 2. Nouns and adjectives when they merely fix a point of the compass: e.g., _He came from the north_, _western New York_, _upper Canada_, etc. 3. The words _father_, _mother_, _mamma_, and all other family appellations, except when used with the proper name of the person or without a possessive pronoun: e.g., _I expect to meet my mother_, but, _I have received a telegram from Mother_; _My aunt gave me this_, but, _It is a present from Aunt Mary_. TITLES Capitalize: 1. The word _State_ when it refers to a political division of the Union: e.g., _the State {25} of Massachusetts_; but use lower case when the word is employed as an adjective. 2. The words _Federal_, _Government_, _Constitution_, _Cabinet_, _Administration_ when they refer to United States Government, and _President_ when referring to the President of the United States. 3. All titles of honor, nobility, and respect: e.g., _His Excellency_, _Her Majesty_, _Father William_, _Mother Hubbard_, _Cousin John_, _Deacon Smith_. 4. Civil and military titles when they are used specifically: e.g., _President Taft_, _King George_, the _Governor_, _General Grant_, etc.; but do not capitalize the titles of offices actually existing when following the name: e.g., _William H. Taft, president of the United States_. 5. The names of societies: e.g., _Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor_, _Boston Congregational Club_, _Second Church Parish_. 6. Names of expositions, conventions, etc.: e.g., _Brockton Fair_, _Congress of Physiology_, etc. 7. Abbreviations of degrees: e.g., _Ph.D._, _LL.D._, _Litt.D._, omitting space between the letters. 8. Such titles as _von_, in German, _le_, _la_, _du_, _de_, or _d’_, in French, _da_, _della_, _di_, or _de’_, etc., in Italian, when the forename is not given: e.g., _Von Humboldt_, _Da Ponte_; but when the article or preposition is preceded by {26} a forename the title should not be capitalized: e.g., _Lorenzo de’ Medici_. _Van_ in Dutch is always capitalized. 9. After _Whereas_ and _Resolved_, followed by a comma, begin the first word with a capital; e.g., WHEREAS, _It has pleased Almighty God_ . . .; _therefore be it_ Resolved, _That_ . . . 10. After a colon, capitalize the first word only when followed by a complete independent sentence or passage or where preceded by such introductory phrases as _namely_, _as follows_, _for instance_, _the point is this_, _my conclusion is this_, etc. 11. In titles of books or essays all words except unimportant adjectives, prepositions, and conjunctions: e.g., _The Fall of the House of Usher_. Do not capitalize: 1. Adjectives compounded with an inseparable prefix with proper names; e.g., _transatlantic_, _unamerican_. 2. The words _apostle_, _pope_, _bishop_, _canon_, _rector_, _chaplain_, _minister_, etc., when separated from names or used descriptively: e.g., _the apostle Paul_; but in direct address they should be capitalized: e.g., “_O Apostle Paul_.” INSTITUTIONAL TERMS Capitalize: 1. _Thanksgiving Day_, _Lord’s Day_, _New Year’s Day_, _the Fourth_ (referring to the {27} Fourth of July), _Children’s Day_, _Easter_, _Founder’s Day_, etc. 2. The word _College_ or _University_ only when part of the title: e.g., _Amherst College_, _Harvard University_. 3. Political alliances and terms which have acquired similar significance: e.g., _the Dreibund_, _the Insurgents_. 4. Titles of treaties, laws, and acts: e.g., _the Treaty of Portsmouth_, _the Declaration of Independence_, _the Edict of Nantes_. 5. Names of political parties: e.g., _Republican_, _Democrat_, etc.; but use lower case for _republican form of government_, _a true democrat_, etc., where reference is not made to members of political parties. 6. Names and epithets of races, tribes, and peoples: e.g., _Hottentots_, _Celestials_, etc.; but use lower case for _negro_, _colored people_, _the blacks_, _the whites_, _poor whites_, etc. 7. Generic parts of names of political divisions (_a_) when the term is an organic part of the name, directly following the proper name: e.g., _the Russian Empire_, _Norfolk County_, etc.; (_b_) when it is used with the preposition _of_ as an integral part of the name indicating administrative subdivisions of the United States: e.g., _Commonwealth of Massachusetts_; (_c_) when it is used singly as designation for a specific division: e.g., _the Dominion_ (_of Canada_), _the Union_; (_d_) when it is used as part of an appellation as though {28} a real geographical name: e.g., _the Pine Tree State_, _the Promised Land_; but use lower case for such terms when standing alone or preceding the specific name: e.g., _the empire of Germany_, _the county of Norfolk_. 8. Numbered political divisions: e.g., _Ward Eleven_, _Fifth Precinct_, _Eleventh Congressional District_, etc. Do not capitalize: 1. The words _legislature_, _circuit court_, _district court_, _city council_, _supreme court_, _senate_, and _house of representatives_ except when specifically applied: e.g., _the legislature of the State_, _the circuit court_, etc.; but _Congress_, _the Circuit Court of Suffolk County_, _the House of Representatives of the United States_. 2. The words _high school_, _grammar school_, except as part of title: e.g., the _Dorchester High School_; but the _high school of Dorchester_. REFERENCES Capitalize: 1. Nouns followed by a capitalized roman numeral: e.g., _Act I_, _Vol. VIII_, etc. In references the nouns and the roman numerals are often lower-cased. Do not capitalize: 1. Minor subdivisions and their abbreviations of literary references: e.g., _line_, _verse_, _note_, _section_, _chapter_, _page_, etc. {29} ORDINALS Capitalize: 1. Sessions of Congress, dynasties, names of regiments, etc.: e.g., _the Fifty-fourth Congress_, _the Sixteenth Dynasty_, _the Forty-fourth Massachusetts_. IN GENERAL Capitalize: 1. The first word of a sentence and the first word of each line of poetry. 2. The words _I_ and _O_. 3. The first word after a colon when introducing a sentence having an independent meaning: e.g., _My explanation is: Competition forces each manufacturer to study economies_. 4. Words having special meanings: e.g., _the Referee’s decision_, _a Bachelor’s degree_. 5. The first word of every direct quotation. 6. In side-heads capitalize only the first word and proper names. 7. In a letter, the first word after the address. In the address, _sir_, _friend_, _father_, _brother_, _sister_, etc. Do not capitalize: 1. Words used in forming parts of hyphenated compounds: e.g., _The speed of the Twentieth-century Limited_, _West Twenty-third Street_, etc. 2. Units of measurement and their {30} abbreviations: e.g., _second_, _minute_, _hour_, _ounce_, _pound_, _foot_, _yard_, etc. 3. The first word of a quotation following a colon (_a_) if it is closely connected with what precedes it; (_b_) if the phrase is dependent upon the preceding clause; or (_c_) if the words following the colon contain comment: e.g., _These explanations occur to me: either the manufacturers are unaware of the situation, or they have become indifferent_. 4. The definite article as a part of the title in mentioning newspapers or magazines: e.g., _the Boston Herald_, _the Review of Reviews_. * * * * * ¶ When a date is at the end of a letter or paper, it is to be placed at the left of page, using roman caps and lower case if above signature; caps, small caps, and italic if below signature. ¶ On title-pages and in headings certain words may be capitalized which in paragraphed matter would be made lower case: e.g., _Queen Maria Sophia, a Forgotten Heroine_. ¶ In MS., two lines drawn underneath a word or words indicate SMALL CAPITALS; three lines, CAPITALS. SMALL CAPITALS 1. B.C. and A.D., A.M. and P.M. should be set in small caps, with no spacing between the letters: e.g., B.C. _480_. {31} SPELLING The difficulties which a writer encounters who has not firmly anchored himself to some recognized authority are many, and for those who have found this refuge to remain consistent is almost an impossibility. To the complications occasioned by variations in spelling certain words given authority by the different recognized dictionaries, there has been added more recently the bewilderment of the “reformed” spelling. To lay down hard-and-fast rules, therefore, would be an act of folly, but a safe guide to follow is to note that when two or more forms exist in any good usage, including good minority usage, or recent usage among bibliographers, scientists, and other systematic writers, the following rules are observed: (_a_) Prefer the form most correct etymologically (_b_) Prefer the shortest and simplest (_c_) Prefer the more phonetic form (_d_) Prefer English spelling rather than foreign. With this as a basis, the following rules may be formulated: NUMBERS 1. Percentage should always take figures: e.g., _1/2 of 1 per cent_. {32} 2. Spell out references to specific decades: e.g., _Back in the eighties_. 3. Spell out years and months in stating ages: e.g., _Edward is five years and four months old_. 4. Spell out numbers of centuries, dynasties, military bodies, streets and thoroughfares, sessions of Congress. 5. In statistical or technical matter figures should be used: e.g., _The paper to be used is 33 × 44 inches, and weighs 120 pounds to the ream._ 6. Spell out, in ordinary reading matter, all numbers of less than three digits: e.g., _We have twenty-five titles, amounting to 250,000 volumes in all_. 7. If, in a group of numbers, some consist of three digits and others of less, use figures for all: e.g., _The packages contain, respectively, 50, 85, and 128 sheets_, not _fifty, eighty-five, and 128_. 8. Spell out round numbers, but use figures for specific, even though approximate statements: e.g., _The population of the United States is about one hundred millions_; but, _The population of the United States is 92,000,000_. 9. Always spell out a figure, whatever its size, when it begins a sentence. If for any reason this is impracticable the sentence must be reconstructed. 10. In ordinary reading matter spell out the time of day, but in enumerations, and {33} always in connection with A.M. and P.M., use figures, omitting the word _o’clock_: e.g., _The doors open at 7:30_ P.M. DIPHTHONGS 1. Avoid all diphthongs, especially _æ_ and _œ_, but retain _æ_ and _œ_ in Latin words and in nominal English forms like _formulæ_ and other plurals, _arbor vitæ_, etc. Established English words having now or formerly the ligature _æ_ or _œ_ are generally written with the simple _e_. SIMPLE RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY 1. Monosyllablic words which end in _f_, _l_, or _s_, when preceded by a single vowel, double their final letter: e.g., _muff_, _still_, _lass_. Exceptions: _clef_, _of_, _if_, _bul_, _nul_, _sal_, _sol_, _as_, _gas_, _has_, _was_, _yes_, _gris_, _is_, _his_, _this_, _pus_, _us_, _thus_. 2. Monosyllabic words which end in consonants other than _f_, _l_, or _s_ do not double their final letter. Exceptions: _abb_, _add_, _ebb_, _odd_, _mumm_, _inn_, _bunn_, _err_, _purr_, _burr_, _butt_, _mitt_, _fizz_, _fuzz_, _buzz_. 3. Monosyllabic words ending in a consonant immediately following a diphthong or a double vowel do not double their final letter. Exception: _guess_. 4. In monosyllables and words accented on the final syllable ending with a single consonant (excepting _h_ or _x_) preceded by a single vowel, or by _qu_ and a vowel, the final consonant is doubled before an added {34} termination beginning with a vowel, irrespective of the addition of another syllable: e.g., _stop, stopped_; _regret, regretting_. When, however, the place of the accent is changed by the added termination, the final consonant is not doubled: e.g., _prefer´, pref´erable_. 5. In monosyllables and words not accented on the last syllable, an added termination does not double the final consonant when it is preceded by a diphthong or by two vowels: e.g., _profit, profited_; _cancel, canceled_; _benefit, benefited_; _equal, equality_, _novel, novelist_, and all the derivatives of _parallel_. 6. Words which end in any double letters retain the double with a termination not beginning with the same letter. This rule also holds for derivatives formed by means of prefixes: e.g., _agreeing_, _calling_, _recall_. Exceptions: _instalment_, _enrolment_, _skilful_, _wilful_, _enthralment_, _pontific_, _withal_, _until_, and similar derivatives. 7. Words ending in _-our_, the _u_ being unsounded, are spelled _-or_, with the exception of Saviour and glamour. The English custom is to retain the _-our_ in most words having this ending. 8. Words derived from words ending in silent _e_ after a consonant retain the _e_ when the added termination begins with a consonant: e.g., _state, statement, stately_; _pale, paleness_; _move, movement_. Exceptions: _abridgment_, {35} _acknowledgment_, _judgment_, _lodgment_, _nursling_, _wholly_, _wisdom_. When another vowel (except _e_ or _i_) immediately precedes the final _e_, the final _e_ is usually dropped before a consonant: e.g., _argue, argument_; _awe, awful_; _true, truly_, etc. There are, however, many exceptions to this rule: e.g., _eye_, _eyesight_, etc. When the termination begins with a vowel, the final _e_ is omitted: e.g., _sale, salable_; _bride, bridal_; _force, forcible_. Exceptions: _mileage_, etc. 9. When words end in _ce_ or _ge_ the final _e_ is retained before added terminations beginning with _a_ or _o_: e.g., _change, changeable_; _courage, courageous_. 10. In participles the final _e_ is sometimes retained for the purpose of distinguishing them from other words pronounced the same but having a different meaning: e.g., _singe, singeing_, to distinguish from _singing_; _dye, dyeing_, to distinguish from _dying_, etc. The _e_ is also retained in _hoeing_, _toeing_, and _shoeing_.[3] [3] See list on page 37. 11. Words ending in _ie_ change their termination to _y_ upon adding _ing_: e.g., _die, dying_; _vie, vying_. 12. Words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change the _y_ to _i_ before any added termination not beginning with _i_: e.g., {36} _merry_, _merriment_; _happy_, _happiness_. Exceptions: adjectives of one syllable: e.g., _dry_, _dryly_; _sly_, _slyness_. Also except derivatives formed by adding _ship_ and _hood_: e.g., _suretyship_, _babyhood_; but _hardihood_. When the final _y_ is preceded by a vowel, the _y_ is usually changed to _i_: e.g., _gay_, _gaiety_; _day_, _daily_; _pay_, _paid_; _lay_, _laid_, etc. 13. The French ending _-re_ in _theater_, _center_, _meager_, _sepulcher_, etc., is not now generally considered good usage. 14. The possessive of proper nouns ending in _s_ or other sibilant is formed by adding the apostrophe and _s_ if the word is of one syllable: e.g., _James’s apple_; but add the apostrophe alone if the word is of more than one syllable: e.g., For _Jesus’ sake_.[4] 15. Words which in their shortest form end in _-d_, _-de_, _-ge_, _-mit_, _-rt_, _-se_, _-ss_ take the ending _-sion_: e.g., _abscind_, _abscission_; _seclude_, _seclusion_; _emerge_, _emersion_; _admit_, _admission_; _revert_, _reversion_; _confuse_, _confusion_; _impress_, _impression_. Other words take the ending _-tion_.[5] [4] See page 19. [5] See list of irregular forms, and departures from rule on page 39. ACCENTED WORDS The following is a partial list of words in common use in which accented letters occur: {37} attaché chargé d’affaires confrère coup d’état coup de grâce crèche débris en arrière en échelon en règle entrée entrepôt exposé façade faïence habitué lèse majesté matériel matinée mêlée née papier-maché procès verbal protégé régime résumé rôle señor soirée tête-à-tête vis-à-vis visé PARTICIPLES These participles should be spelled as follows: acknowledging agreeing awing bluing dyeing encouraging gluing grudging hieing hoeing icing judging owing shoeing singeing tingeing trudging truing VARIABLE ENDINGS 1. The following words are spelled with the termination _ize_: aggrandize agonize analyze anatomize anglicize apologize apostrophize apprize (_to value_) authorize baptize brutalize canonize catechize catholicize cauterize centralize characterize christianize civilize colonize criticize crystallize demoralize dogmatize economize emphasize epitomize equalize eulogize evangelize extemporize familiarize fertilize {38} fossilize fraternize galvanize generalize gormandize harmonize immortalize italicize jeopardize legalize liberalize localize magnetize memorialize mesmerize metamorphize methodize minimize modernize monopolize moralize nationalize naturalize neutralize organize ostracize paralyze particularize pasteurize patronize philosophize plagiarize pulverize realize recognize reorganize revolutionize satirize scandalize scrutinize signalize solemnize soliloquize specialize spiritualize standardize stigmatize subsidize summarize syllogize symbolize sympathize tantalize temporize tranquilize tyrannize universalize utilize vaporize vitalize vocalize vulcanize vulgarize 2. The following words are spelled with the termination _ise_: advertise advise appraise apprise (_to inform_) arise chastise circumcise comprise compromise demise devise disfranchise disguise emprise enfranchise enterprise exercise exorcise franchise improvise incise manuprise merchandise premise reprise revise rise supervise surmise surprise 3. The following words have the termination _-ible_; words not included in this list {39} end in _-able_[6], except a few words pronounced similarly, but spelled differently. accessible admissible appetible apprehensible audible cessible coercible compatible competible comprehensible compressible conceptible contemptible contractible controvertible convertible convincible corrigible corrosible corruptible credible decoctible deducible defeasible defensible descendible destructible digestible discernible distensible divisible docible edible effectible eligible eludible enforcible evincible expansible expressible extendible extensible fallible feasible fencible flexible forcible francible fusible gullible horrible illegible immiscible impassible[7] intelligible irascible legible miscible negligible partible passible[7] perceptible permissible persuasible pervertible plausible possible productible reducible reflexible refrangible remissible reprehensible resistible responsible reversible revertible risible seductible sensible tangible terrible transmissible visible [6] RULE: Derivations of the first conjugation in Latin take _a_; those of the other conjugations, _i_. [7] See page 42. 4. These are the irregular forms of the endings _-sion_ and _-tion_. adhesion assertion attention coercion cohesion crucifixion {40} declension dimension dissension distortion divulsion expulsion impulsion insertion intention occasion propulsion recursion repulsion revulsion scansion suspicion tension version 5. The following words are pronounced similarly, but the meaning changes with the spelling: Advice counsel advise to counsel albumen white of egg albumin viscous substance alegar ale vinegar aleger cheerful, sprightly ante preceding anti against apprise to inform apprize to value auger tool augur to predict by signs Base bottom, vile bass lowest tone bask to lie in warmth basque apparel berth place to sleep birth coming into life breach gap breech hinder part of a gun Cannon gun canon law or rule canyon gorge cannot denial of power can not affirmation of power canvas cloth {41} canvass to solicit capital chief, money, stock capitol building caster vial castor rodent censer incense-pan censor critic cere to wax sear to burn the surface seer prophet sere dry, withered claimant one who claims clamant beseeching complement fulness compliment praise conveyer one who conveys conveyor contrivance for conveying objects coquet to trifle in love coquette flirt council deliberative body counsel to advise consular pertaining to a counsel councilor member of a council counselor adviser corespondent one who answers jointly with another correspondent one who corresponds by letter Depositary receiver depository place of deposit discreet prudent discrete distinct dyeing coloring dying expiring Emigrant one who moves out of a country immigrant one who moves into a country emigration moving out immigration moving in empirical experimentative empyrical combustible principle of coal {42} Faker cheat, swindler fakir Oriental religious ascetic farther as applied to distance further signifying additional Galipot resin or pitch gallipot medicine pot gantlet “running the gantlet” gauntlet glove grisly horrible grizzly grayish Hoard accumulate horde troop Immanent inherent imminent impending impassible incapable of emotion impassable not passable incipient commencing insipient stupid, foolish indict charge with crime indite compose, write indiscreet imprudent indiscrete compact intension stretching intention determination Lessen to reduce lesson something to be studied Maize corn maze labyrinth marten animal martin bird meat flesh meet to join, proper mete to measure miner digger minor under age mucous slimy mucus viscid fluid {43} O wish, imprecation oh! an exclamation Panel sunken plane with raised margins pannel rustic saddle parol oral declaration parole word of honor passable admitting passage passible unfeeling pendant ornament pendent hanging premices first-fruits premises property principal adjective principle noun prophecy prediction prophesy to foretell Rabbet groove in edge of boards rabbit small animal resin semi-liquid exudation of the pine rosin solid product of turpentine rigger a fitter of ships’ rigging rigor muscular rigidity riot tumult ryot tiller of the soil Saver one who saves savor flavor subtle sly, artful suttle net weight sheath scabbard sheathe to cover sleight artful trick slight small Theocracy government by direction of God theocrasy mixture of worship of different gods ton measure of weight tun large cask {44} Vertical perpendicular verticle axis, hinge Wheal raised mark, a welt wheel rotating disk {45} COMPOUND WORDS The general theory of compounding is that when two words are used together with but a single meaning, the hyphen is employed if the emphasis of pronunciation falls upon the first word, but omitted if it is the second word which requires the emphasis. Practice, however, has shown that this theory is not sufficiently specific in its expression to guide the student who is desirous of making consistent use of the hyphen, and recourse to the various dictionaries adds to his confusion because of the many variations. Good usage, therefore, becomes his only refuge, and the rules which are formulated and collated here are based wholly upon what appears to the present writer to come within this definition. Many words originally compounded or written as two words are now written as one; on the other hand, modern usage now compounds or breaks into two words many words which were originally written as one. ¶ In general, hyphens should always be omitted when the meaning can be equally well expressed by using the same words separately. {46} Use the hyphen: 1. With the prefix _mid_, except in cases of words in common use: e.g., _mid-channel_, but _midsummer_, _midday_, etc. 2. When two or more words (except proper names which form a unity in themselves) are combined, preceding a noun: e.g., _the well-known financier_, _up-to-date equipment_, _go-as-you-please race_; but _a quaint old English tea-room_. In applying this rule be careful not to hyphenate adjectives and participles with adverbs which end in _ly_, nor with combinations such as those referred to when following a noun or qualifying a predicate: e.g., _possessed of highly developed intelligence_, _a lawyer well thought of in his own city_. 3. In such words as _attorney-general_, _vice-president_, _rear-admiral_, etc.; but not in _viceroy_, _vicegerent_, etc. 4. Compounds of color: e.g., _olive-green_, _silver-gray_, _lemon-yellow_, _red-hot_, etc. But in simple cases of adjective and noun, as _brownish yellow_ or _yellowish white_ the words are not compounded. 5. In nouns which stand in objective relation to each other, one of whose components is derived from a transitive verb: e.g., _I am your well-wisher_, _He is a large property-holder_, _hero-worship_, but not in _bookkeeper_, _bookmaker_, _copyholder_, _dressmaker_, _lawgiver_, _proofreader_, {47} _taxpayer_, and similar common short compounds.[8] [8] See page 50, Sec. 5. 6. In compounds of fellow: e.g., _play-fellow_, _fellow-creatures_, etc.; but _bedfellow_. 7. In compounds of _father_, _mother_, _brother_, _sister_, _daughter_, _parent_, and _foster_: e.g., _father-feeling_, _mother-country_, _brother-love_, _sister-empire_, _foster-father_, _great-grandfather_, etc.; but _fatherland_, _fatherhead_, _grandfather_. 8. In compounds of _world_ and _life_: e.g., _life-story_, _world-influence_, etc.; but _lifetime_. 9. In compounds of _master_: e.g., _master-painter_, etc.; but _masterpiece_. 10. In compounds of _god_: e.g., _sun-god_, _rain-god_, etc.; but _godson_. 11. When _half_ or _quarter_, etc., is combined with a noun: e.g., _half-circle_, _half-title_, _quarter-mile_, etc.; but _quartermaster_, _headquarters_, etc. 12. In compounds of _self_: e.g., _self-esteem_, _self-respecting_, etc., but not in _selfhood_, _selfish_, _selfsame_, or _oneself_. 13. In connecting _ex_, _vice_, _general_, _elect_, etc., constituting parts of titles, with the chief noun: e.g., _ex-Governor Draper_, _Governor-elect Wilson_, etc. 14. In compounds of _by_: e.g., _by-laws_, _by-products_, etc. 15. In connection with prefixes _co_, _pre_, and _re_ when followed by words beginning with the same vowel as that in which they terminate, but not when followed by a {48} different vowel or a consonant: e.g., _co-operation_, but _coeducation_; _pre-empted_, but _prearranged_; _re-elected_, but _recast._ Exceptions: combinations with proper names, long or unusual formations, and words where the hyphen defines the meaning: e.g., _re-creation_ and _recreation_, _re-form_ and _reform_, _re-collect_ and _recollect_, _pre-Raphaelite_. 16. In writing ordinal numbers when compounded with such words as _first-rate_, _second-hand_, etc. 17. In connection with the word _quasi_ prefixed to a noun or to an adjective: e.g., _quasi-corporation_, _quasi-compliant_, etc. 18. In connection with the Latin prepositions _extra_, _infra_, _semi_, _supra_, and _ultra_: e.g., _extra-hazardous_ but _extraordinary_; _ultra-conservative_ but _Ultramontane_. 19. In spelling out fractional numbers involving more than two words: e.g., _The supply is three-quarters exhausted_; but, _This leaves twenty-five hundredths_. 20. In compounding numerals of one syllable with self-explanatory words of various meanings: e.g., _three-legged_, _four-footed_, _one-armed_, etc. Also in combining numerals with nouns, to form an adjective: e.g. _twelve-inch rule_, _hundred-yard dash_, _two-horse team_, etc. 21. In compounding a noun in the possessive case with another noun: e.g., _jews’-harp_, _crow’s-nest_, etc. {49} 22. In some compounds with _tree_: e.g., _apple-tree_; but _whippletree_, _crosstree_, etc. 23. In compounding personal epithets: e.g., _hard-headed_, _bow-legged_, etc. 24. Use the hyphen in the following words: after-years bas-relief birth-rate blood-feud blood-relations common-sense cross-examine cross-reference cross-section death-rate feast-day folk-song food-stuff fountain-head guinea-pig horse-power page-proof pay-roll poor-law post-office sea-level sense-perception son-in-law subject-matter man-of-war object-lesson thought-process title-page wave-length well-being well-nigh will-power Do not use the hyphen: 1. When writing points of the compass: e.g., _northeast_, _southwest_; but _north-northeast_, etc. 2. In words ending in _like_, unless compounded with nouns containing more than one syllable (except when ending in _l_): e.g., _childlike_, _lifelike_; but _business-like_, _bell-like_, etc. 3. In compounds ending with _man_ or _woman_: e.g., _workman_, _needlewoman_, etc. 4. In phrases such as _by and by_, _by the bye_, _good morning_, _attorney at law_, _coat of arms_, etc. 5. In words ending in _boat_, _house_, _look_, _room_, _side_, _yard_, _shop_, _mill_, _field_, _work_, _chair_, _maker_, _holder_, _keeper_, _skin_, _store_, _book_, _fold_, _score_, _penny_, _pence_ when the prefixed noun {50} contains but a single syllable: e.g., _twofold_, _schoolroom_, _handbook_, _windmill_, _bookkeeper_, _workshop_, etc. Exceptions: _Court-house_ and _State House_. When prefixed noun contains two syllables, use the hyphen: e.g., _bucket-shop_, _twenty-fold_, _ante-room_, _mason-work_, _paper-mill_, etc.[9] When prefixed noun contains three or more syllables write as two separate words: e.g., _policy shop_. 6. In compounds of _bi_, _tri_, _semi_, or _demi_: e.g., _bimonthly_, _tricolor_, _semiannual_, _demijohn._ Exceptions: long or unusual formations: e.g., _bi-centennial_, etc. 7. In _today_,[10] _tonight_, _tomorrow_, _viewpoint_, or _standpoint_. [9] See page 47, Sec. 5. [10] _Cf._ the old English words _to-morn_, _to-year_, etc. 8. In connection with the negative prefixes _un_, _in_, and _a_: e.g., _unrepublican_, _inanimate_, etc., but the prefix _non_ requires the hyphen except in words which have become common: e.g., _non-conductor_, but _nonsense_. 9. In connection with the words _over_ and _under_ employed as prefixes: e.g., _overestimate_, _undersecretary_; but _over-soul_, _over-spiritual_, _under-man_. 10. In connection with the Latin prepositions _ante_, _anti_, _inter_, _intra_, _post_, _sub_, and _super_: e.g., _antedate_, _antidote_, _subtitle_, etc.; but _ante-room_, _anti-imperialistic_, _intra-atomic_. {51} 11. In spelling out a series of fractions: e.g., _I can secure you one, two, or three fifths_, not _one-_, _two-_, or _three-fifths_. Nor in writing ordinary fractions: e.g., _one half_, _five eighths_, etc. But another class of fractions require the hyphen: e.g., _twenty-fifth_, _twenty-two one-hundredths_. 12. In compounds ending with _holder_ or _monger_: e.g., _stockholder_, _ironmonger_. 13. In compounds beginning with _eye_: e.g., _eyeglass_, _eyebrow_, _eyelash_, _eyewitness_, etc. 14. In compounds with the word _school_: e.g., _schoolmates_, _schoolmaster_, etc. Exceptions: when made with a participle: e.g., _school-teaching_; or in combinations where separate words are more clear: e.g., _school committee_, _school children_, etc. 15. In compounds with _deutero_, _electro_, _pseudo_, _sulpho_, _thermo_, etc., unless the compound is unusual: e.g., _electrotype_, _pseudonym_, etc. 16. In compound adverbs: e.g., _meantime_, _moreover_, _forever_, _everywhere_, etc. But in phrases like _after a while_, _in the mean time_, _for ever and ever_, the words should be separated. 17. In words like _anybody_, _anyhow_, _anything_, _anyway_, _anywhere_, _somebody_, _somehow_, _something_, _sometime_, _somewhat_, _somewhere._ But _any one_ and _some one_ are written as separate words. {52} DIVISION OF WORDS The unnecessary division of a word should always be avoided. The whole word should be carried over whenever possible. 2. A word should be divided in accordance with its natural division in correct pronunciation, rather than according to derivation: e.g., _knowl-edge_, not _know-ledge_; but divide according to meaning and derivation as far as is compatible with good spacing and pronunciation: e.g., _dis-pleasure_, not _displeas-ure_. 3. A single consonant between two vowels should be joined with the first vowel if short, but with the latter if long: e.g., _riv-er_, _ri-val_; but avoid dividing words as short as these if possible. 4. When two consonants come together between two vowels the consonants should be divided: e.g., _mil-lion_, _struc-ture_. 5. When three consonants come together between two vowels the first of which is short, all which can be pronounced together go with the last syllable: e.g., _han-dle_, _chil-dren_, _frus-trate_, etc. 6. Whenever practicable, and always when the pronunciation of a word is peculiar, the division should come upon the vowel: e.g., _pro-duct_, _colo-nel_, _sepa-rate_, _peo-ple_, _pro-gress_. {53} Exceptions: words ending in _-able_ and _-ible_, which should carry the vowel over into the next line. 7. The letters _c_ and _g_ must never be separated from the vowels _e_, _i_, and _y_ upon which their soft sound depends: e.g., _re-li-gion_, _ca-pa-ci-ty_, etc. 8. _X_ must never begin a syllable, _j_ must never end one, and _q_ must not be separated from _u_, which invariably follows it. 9. When used as terminations, _ing_, _en_, _ed_, _er_, _est_, and the plural _es_ are considered as syllables, except when the preceding consonant is doubled, or when they follow _c_ or _g_ soft: e.g., _speak-ing_, _tak-en_, _long-er_; but _lat-ter_, _for-cing_, _ran-ging_. 10. Two-letter divisions should always be avoided. These words should never be divided: _eleven_, _heaven_, _power_, _faster_, _finer_, _houses_, _given_, _flower_, _prayer_, _soften_, _liken_, _verses_, _listen_, _often_, _voyage_, _nothing_, _even_, etc. 11. When a derivative word ends in _t_, the _t_ is carried over when the accent changes: e.g., _instinc-tive_ (instinct); but not otherwise: e.g., _construct-ive_ (construct). 12. More than two divisions in successive lines should be avoided. 13. A division at the end of the last full line of a paragraph should be avoided. 14. A word of four letters is not divisible. Dividing words of five or six letters should be avoided if possible. {54} 15. An amount that is stated in figures should not be divided. 16. A word in the past tense, pronounced as one syllable, should not be divided: e.g., _beamed_. 17. The separation of two initials of a person’s name, or such combination as B.C., A.M., should be avoided. 18. A divided word that will appear on the last line of one page and the top line of the next page is to be avoided. 19. Separating a divisional mark (_a_) or (_b_) from the matter to which it pertains should be avoided. 20. Adjectives ending in _-ical_ should be divided upon the _i_: e.g., _musi-cal_, not _music-al_ or _mu-sical_. 21. Word endings _-tion_, _-sion_, _-tial_, _-cial_, _-tive_, etc., are treated as one syllable. 22. In compound words additional hyphens should be avoided: e.g., _music-lesson_, not _music-les-son_. Keep prefixes, roots, suffixes, etc., as distinct as possible. NOTE. Division of words in French, Italian, German, and Spanish, may be found in De Vinne’s “Correct Composition,” pp. 434–446. {55} INDENTION AND PARAGRAPHING In prose manuscript, each paragraph should be written with _regular_ indention. 2. When paragraphs are numbered, the figure should be written where the capital letter of the first word would otherwise be placed. 3. In poetry, lines which overrun should be written with _reverse_ indention. 4. When poetry is quoted in a prose composition, it should begin on a new line. If the continuation of the prose writing does not call for a new paragraph, the next line of prose text begins without indention. 5. When a prose quotation is introduced, it should be treated as in Rule 4 if it contains more than a single sentence; otherwise it is “run in,” with the proper quotation-marks and punctuation. 6. There are different forms of indention in typography which are used for different purposes, viz.: «Irregular indention.»— For this form of indention there are no specified rules, and it is used principally in certain styles of poetry and in display work. {56} «En échelon indention» is largely used for display in posters and advertisements. It consists in the diagonal arrangement of words, thus: CARPETS CHAIRS TABLES STOVES «Hanging indention», which makes the first line of full width and indents all the following lines one or more ems on the left, as shown in these four lines. «Half-diamond indention» was used largely by early printers, particularly by Aldus, not only for title-pages, but also for chapter endings. It consists in arranging all lines right and left thus «Lozenge indention» requires an arrangement of the lines in this manner: IT IS ALWAYS A TROUBLESOME THING TO ACCOMPLISH AS IT TAKES MUCH EXPERIMENTING TO GAIN RESULTS BLOCKED INDENTION CALLS FOR AN ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORDS IN SUCH A MANNER THAT THE LINES ARE ALL OF EQUAL LENGTH {57} PARAGRAPHING Indention and Display are the methods employed in typography to secure clearness and to add distinction to the printed page, but clearness in the body of the text is dependent upon the skill of the writer in properly dividing his composition into paragraphs. Just as correct punctuation assists the reader in his understanding of a sentence, so does correct paragraphing add to the understanding of the composition as a whole. The following rules may be formulated, based upon the practice of the most careful writers: 1. A sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph. 2. Each paragraph should possess a single central topic, to which all the statements in the paragraph should relate. The introduction of a single statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity. 3. A sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph to which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to emphasize it. 4. For ease in reading, a passage which exceeds three hundred words in length may be broken into two paragraphs, even though no new topic has been developed. 5. Any digression from the central topic, or any change in the viewpoint in {58} considering the central topic, demands a new paragraph. 6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of development. 7. Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of proper connective words between closely related sentences. A common fault, however, is the incorrect use of such words as _and_ or _but_ between sentences which are not closely related. 8. In developing the paragraph, emphasis is secured by a careful consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed, giving to each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole. This secures the proper climax. 9. The paragraph, like the composition itself, should possess clearness, unity, coherence, and emphasis. It is a group of related sentences, developing a central topic. Its length depends upon the length of the composition and upon the number of topics to be discussed. {59} SPACING Each line should be spaced evenly throughout. 2. The spaces in a line should never vary more than the difference between a _three to em_ space and an _en_ quad.[11] [11] See page 60. 3. Uniformity in appearance shows excellence in printing. To have one line thin-spaced and the next wide-spaced is in bad taste. Even in narrow measure this inequality can be avoided with proper care. 4. In fonts of type where ends of hyphens and dashes touch the adjoining letters, hair-spaces should be used. Also use hair-spaces before colons, semicolons, interrogation-points, exclamation-marks, and inside quotation-marks. 5. No space should be left between superior letters, or letters indicating powers, and inferior figures or letters; or between letters forming products. 6. No space should be left between the abbreviations A.D. and B.C., A.M. and P.M., between titles, such as _LL.D._, _Ph.D._, etc., or between the abbreviations of States, such {60} as _N.Y._, _R.I._, _N.H._, etc., except in a wide-spaced line. 7. Scripture references should be spaced as follows: _II Sam. 1 : 2–6; 2 : 8–12._ 8. No space should be left between the symbols $ and £ and the succeeding figures. 9. An indention of one or more ems should be allowed at the end of the last line of a paragraph. 10. The same space should be left on each side of short words, such as _a_, _an_, etc. 11. It is poor typography to thin-space or wide-space a line in order to avoid a turn-over. 12. Beginning and ending a line with the same word in wide measure should be avoided, but not at the expense of good spacing. 13. The kerned letters _f_ and _j_ require a hair-space before them when they begin a line. When kerned letters end a line a hair-space is necessary after them to prevent breaking off in printing. 14. Should wide spacing be necessary, it should occur where it will be least noticed; viz., between words ending or beginning with tall letters. 15. This is an en dash: – This is an em dash: — This is a 2 em dash: —— This is a 3 em dash: ——— {61} 16. This line is hair-spaced. This line is spaced with 5-em spaces. This line is spaced with 4-em spaces. This line is spaced with 3-em spaces. This line is spaced with en quads. This line is spaced with em quads. {62} ITALIC The first italic types were designed and used by Aldus Manutius, the celebrated Italian printer, of the fifteenth century. It is said that the style was suggested by the handwriting of Petrarch. In the first fonts only the lower case letters were italic, the capitals being roman; but this irregularity soon gave way to the more regular style of italic capitals and lower case. 1. Italic is not used for the text of a book, but it is permissible for the preface, extracts, etc. 2. For poetry and other matter of a literary character italic has a decorative effect. 3. Italic is used for emphasis in roman composition and vice versa. 4. Italic is used frequently for subheads, running-heads, and side-heads, as well as for important paragraphs or extracts. 5. Italic is often used instead of roman-quoted for the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, and names of ships. 6. Signatures or credits are often placed in italic at the end of an article. 7. Foreign words and phrases are often required to be set in italic, but there are many which are now so familiar to English readers {63} that they are kept in the ordinary text. The following is a list of the most familiar words: à propos ad valorem addenda aide-de-camp alias alibi alma mater anno domini ante-bellum beau idéal billet-doux bon-ton bona fide bravo café canto carte blanche chapeau chaperon chargé d’affaires chiaroscuro cicerone contra corrigenda data débris début depot diarrhœa diatum dilettante dramatis personæ ennui entrepôt erratum et cetera facsimile fête finis gratis hoi polloi imprimatur innuendo literati mandamus manœuvre mignonette naïve ollapodrida onus paterfamilias patois per annum per capita per cent. per centum per se post-mortem pro rata protégé quondam régime rendezvous rôle savant seraglio sobriquet ultimatum verbatim vice vice versa viva voce 8. The following expressions, which are not as a rule so well known, should be italicized: _ab ovo_ _ancien régime_ _bête noire_ _comme il faut_ _de quoi vivre_ _de trop_ _en passant_ _fait accompli_ _grand monde_ _hors de combat_ _inter alia_ _jeu d’esprit_ _locum tenens_ _mise en scène_ _noblesse oblige_ _raison d’être_ _sans cérémonie_ _tour de force_ {64} 9. Italic is used in the following words, phrases, and abbreviations employed in literary and legal references: e.g., _ibid_, _idem_, _loc. cit._, _op. cit._, _ad loc._, _s.v._, _supra_, _infra_, _passim_, _vide_, _circa_ (_ca._). Exceptions: cf., i.e., e.g., v. (versus), viz., etc., which are always roman. 10. Punctuation marks which are placed after italicized words should be italic. Italic is used: 1. For the names of plaintiff and defendant in the citation of legal causes. 2. In algebraic, geometric, and similar matter to designate unknown quantities, lines, etc. 3. For _s._ and _d._ (_shilling_ and _pence_) following the figures: e.g., 1_s._ 6_d._ 4. For specific names in Botany, Zoölogy, and Geology. 5. In medical matter roman is used instead of italic for scientific terms. 6. For names of stars or constellations in astronomical matter. 7. In resolutions for the word _Resolved_. In MS. one line drawn beneath a word or sentence signifies that it is to be put in italic. {65} ABBREVIATIONS DATES Dates are not usually abbreviated in writing or in regular text matter; but when necessary the following rules may be followed: 1. Do not use _st_, _d_, _rd_, or _th_ after a date given in figures; e.g., _June 3_, not _June 3d_ or _3rd_. If a date is spelled out, the rule is as follows: e.g., _June the third_, not _June three_. 2. Do not use _ult._, _inst._, or _prox._, but always name the month: e.g., _Oct. 25_, not _25th ult._, _Nov. 10_, not _10th inst._ 3. Use generally accepted abbreviations for the names of months when the day of the month is also given, and prefer dates in order of day, month, and year: e.g., _7 Jan., 1912_. When the name of the month is used alone or followed only by the year, do not abbreviate: e.g., _February, 1912_, not _Feb., 1912_. 4. For ordinary purposes use these as the generally accepted abbreviations for the months and days of the week: Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. 5. In tables and wherever matter must be _greatly_ condensed use the Dewey dates, {66} which are the briefest possible without ambiguity, in the order of (_a_) day of week, (_b_) day of month, (_c_) month, (_d_) year. These abbreviations are not desirable except in tabular matter. Ja. F. Mr. Ap. My. Je. Ju. Ag. S. O. N. D. Sn. M. Tu. W. Th. F. St. PROPER NAMES 1. Abbreviate _company_ in firm names: e.g., _John Brown & Co._ 2. Spell out names of companies, railroads, etc., using the ampersand (&) only between proper names: e.g., _Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company_; _Norfolk & Western Railroad_; but _American Smelting and Refining Company_. If names of railroads are abbreviated, use no space between the letters: e.g., _N.Y._, _N.H. & H.R.R._ 3. Abbreviate _United States_ when immediately associated with the name of an officer of the army or navy, as _Lieut. John Doe, U.S.A._; when it is the name of an organization of the army or navy, as _First Regiment U.S.V._; when preceding the name of a government vessel, as _U.S.S. Brooklyn_. 4. In referring to plays, specify act, scene, and line, also part if necessary: e.g., _2 Henry IV, I, ii, 1–7_. 5. Christian names should be spelled in full, as _John_, _George_, _Charles_, except in an {67} original signature, or when following copy in a quotation. 6. When necessary to abbreviate Christian names, use the forms _Dan._, _Edw._, _Sam._, _Thos._, etc. _Alex_, _Ben_, _Ed_, and _Sam_ are not always abbreviations, and copy should be followed as regards period. Use the following list: Alex. Alexander And. Andrew Anth. Anthony Ap. Appius Arch. Archibald Aug. August, Augustus Benj. Benjamin C. Caesar Caes. Aug. Caesar Augustus Cath. Catherine Chas. Charles Dan. Daniel Eben. Ebenezer Edm. Edmund Edw. Edward Eliz. Elizabeth Esd. Esdras Esth. Esther Ez. Ezra Ezek. Ezekiel Ferd. Ferdinand Fran. Francis Fred. Frederic, Frederick Geo. George Herbt. Herbert Hos. Hosea {68} Jas. James Jona. Jonathan Jos. Joseph Josh. Joshua Matt. Matthew Nath. Nathaniel Pet. Peter Phil. Philip, Philander Philem. Philemon Reg. Reginald Richd. Richard Robt. Robert Sam. Samuel Theo. Theodore Thos. Thomas Tim. Timothy Wm. William TITLES 1. In ordinary body matter use generally accepted abbreviations of titles when they are immediately prefixed to names. 2. Do not abbreviate a title used as part of a name: e.g., _Bishop Lawrence_, not _Bp. Lawrence_. 3. Such titles as _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Messrs._, _Gen._, _Dr._, _Hon._, _Rev._, when prefixed to names, may be abbreviated; but _Colonel_, _Major_, _Professor_, _President_, _ex-President_, etc., are better spelled in full. Compound titles, such as _Major-General_, _Lieutenant-Colonel_, _Rear-Admiral_, etc., should also be spelled and both {69} words capitalized. Where a person has been mentioned by name and title, and is afterward mentioned by title only, the title should be capitalized. Where initials of a name are used, abbreviate the title: e.g., _Col. T. G. Benson, of the Second Illinois Regiment, has returned from Havana. The Colonel’s friends gave him a warm reception_. 4. When the names of sovereigns of a country are mentioned only occasionally, such names may be given in full: e.g., _George the Fifth_, _Charles the First_. When such names occur frequently, they may be printed with roman numerals without a period: e.g., _George V_, _Charles I_ 5. The following is a full list of the usual abbreviations: A.B. or B.A. (_Artium Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Arts Abp. Archbishop A.C. Archchancellor A.D. Archduke A.D.C. Aide-de-camp Adjt. Adjutant Adm. Admiral Admr. Administrator Admx., Admrx. Administratrix Adv. Advocate Agt. Agent Aldm. Alderman A.M. or M.A. (_Artium Magister_) Master of Arts Amb. Ambassador A.P.A. American Protective Association Asst. Assistant A.T. Archtreasurer Atty. Attorney {70} B.A. or A.B. Bachelor of Arts Bart. Baronet B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law B.D. (_Baccalaureus Divinitatis_) Bachelor of Divinity B.LL. (_Baccalaureus Legum_) Bachelor of Laws B.M. (_Baccalaureus Medicinae_) Bachelor of Medicine Bp. Bishop B.R. (_Banco Regis_ or _Reginae_) the King’s or Queen’s Bench Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General Bro(s). Brother(s) B.S. Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Surgery B.V. (_Beata Virgo_) Blessed Virgin Cantab. (_Cantabrigia_) Cambridge Capt. Captain Capt.-Gen. Captain-General Cash. Cashier C.B. Companion of the Bath C.C.P. Court of Common Pleas C.E. Civil Engineer C.J. Chief Justice C.M.G. Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George Col. Colonel Com. Commander, Commodore Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretary Corp. Corporal C.S. Court of Sessions C.S. (_Custos Sigilli_) Keeper of the Seal D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law D.D. Doctor of Divinity D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Surgery Dea. Deacon Dep. Deputy D.F. Defender of the Faith D.M. Doctor of Music {71} Dr. Doctor D.Sc. Doctor of Science D.T. (_Doctor Theologiae_) Doctor of Divinity D.V.M. or M.D.V. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine E. (_after titles_) Edinburgh Esq. Esquire F.D. (_Fidei Defensor_) Defender of the Faith F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society Fr. Father F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society F.R.S.A. Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Arts G.C.B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath G.C.H. Knight of the Grand Cross of Hanover G.C.M.G. Knight of the Grand Cross, Order of St. Michael and St. George Gen. General Gov. Governor Govt. Government G.R. (_Georgius Rex_) King George H.B.M. His or Her Britannic Majesty H.M. His or Her Majesty H.M.S. His or Her Majesty’s Service Hon. Honorable H.R. House of Representatives H.R.E. Holy Roman Emperor H.R.H. His or Her Royal Highness H.S.H. His or Her Serene Highness I.N.R.I. (_Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum_) Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews Insp. Inspector Insp. Gen. Inspector General I.O.O.F. Independent Order of Odd Fellows {72} J.A. Judge-Advocate J.P. Justice of the Peace J. Prob. Judge of the Probate Jr. or Jun. Junior K. King K.A. Knight of St. Andrew, in Russia K.A.N. Knight of Alexander Newski, in Russia K.B. King’s Bench; Knight of the Bath K.B.A. Knight of St. Bento d’Avis, in Portugal K.B.E. Knight of the Black Eagle, in Prussia K.C. King’s Council; Knight of the Crescent, in Turkey K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath K.C.H. Knight Commander of Hanover K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of Order of St. Michael and St. George K.C.S. Knight of Charles III, in Spain K.E. Knight of the Elephant, in Denmark K.F. Knight of Ferdinand of Spain K.F.M. Knight of Ferdinand and Merit, in Sicily K.G. Knight of the Garter K.G.C. Knight of the Grand Cross K.G.C.B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath K.G.F. Knight of the Golden Fleece K.G.H. Knight of the Guelph of Hanover K.G.V. Knight of Gustavus Vasa of Sweden K.H. Knight of Hanover K.J. Knight of St. Joachim K.L.H. Knight of the Legion of Honor K.M. Knight of Malta K. Mess. King’s Messenger K.M.H. Knight of Merit, in Holstein K.M.J. Knight of Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria K.M.T. Knight of Maria Theresa of Austria K.N.S. Knight of the Royal North Star, in Sweden K.P. Knight of St. Patrick {73} K.R.E. Knight of the Red Eagle, in Prussia K.S. Knight of the Sword, in Sweden K.S.A. Knight of St. Anne of Russia K.S.E. Knight of St. Esprit, in France K.S.F. Knight of St. Fernando of Spain K.S.F.M. Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, in Naples K.S.G. Knight of St. George of Russia K.S.H. Knight of St. Hubert of Bavaria K.S.J. Knight of St. Janarius of Naples K.S.L. Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia K.S.M. & S.G. Knight of St. Michael and St. George of the Ionian Isles K.S.P. Knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland K.S.S. Knight of the Southern Star of the Brazils; Knight of the Sword, in Sweden K.S.W. Knight of St. Wladimir of Russia Kt. Knight K.T. Knight of the Thistle K.T.S. Knight of the Tower and Sword, in Portugal K.W. Knight of William of the Netherlands K.W.E. Knight of the White Eagle, in Poland L. (_after titles_) London L.C. Lord Chancellor L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice Leg. Legate Legis. Legislature Lieut. Lieutenant Lieut.-Col. Lieutenant-Colonel Lieut.-Gen. Lieutenant-General Litt.D. (_Litterarum Doctor_) Doctor of Literature LL.B. (_Legum Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Laws LL.D. (_Legum Doctor_) Doctor of Laws M. Monsieur M.A. Master of Arts Maj. Major Maj.-Gen. Major-General {74} M.B. (_Medicinae Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Medicine; (_Musicae Baccalaureus_) Bachelor of Music M.C. Member of Congress M.D. (_Medicinae Doctor_) Doctor of Medicine Messrs. Messieurs Mgr. Manager; Monsignor Min. Plen. Minister Plenipotentiary Mlle. Mademoiselle Mme. Madame M.P. Member of Parliament M.R. Master of the Rolls Mr. Mister or Master Mrs. Mistress Mus. Doc. Doctor of Music Oxon. (_Oxonensis_) Oxford P.C. (_Patres Conscripti_) Conscript Fathers; Senators; Privy Counsellor Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy Ph.G. Graduate in Pharmacy P.M. Postmaster P.M.G. Postmaster-General P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy Pres. President Prof. Professor Prov. Provost P.R.S. President of the Royal Society Q. Queen Q.M. Quartermaster R.A. Royal Academician R.E. Royal Engineers Reg. Prof. Regius Professor Rev. Reverend R.M. Royal Marines R.N. Royal Navy R.N.O. (_Riddare af Nordstjerneorden_) Knight of the Order of Polar Star {75} R.S.S. (_Regiae Societatis Socius_) Fellow of the Royal Society Rt. Hon. Right Honorable Rt. Rev. Right Reverend Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful R.W. Right Worthy R.W.O. (_Riddare af Wasa Orden_) Knight of the Order of Wasa Sec. Secretary Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation Serg. Sergeant Serg.-Maj. Sergeant-Major S.J. Society of Jesus S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court Sol. Solicitor Sol.-Gen. Solicitor-General Sr., Sen. Senior S.R.S. (_Societatis Regiae Socius_) Fellow of the Royal Society S.T.D. (_Sacrae Theologiae Doctor_) Doctor of Divinity S.T.P. (_Sacrae Theologiae Professor_) Professor of Divinity St. Saint, Street Supt. Superintendent Tr(s). Trustee(s) Treas. Treasurer U.J.C. (_Utriusque Juris Doctor_) Doctor of both Laws V.C. Vice-Chancellor V.D.M. (_Verbi Dei Minister_) Preacher of the Word Vice-Pres. Vice-President Visc. Viscount W.S. Writer to the Signet {76} 6. COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS A1 Highest class or grade Acct. Account Advt., Ad. Advertisement Agt. Agent Amt. Amount Anon. Anonymous Ans. Answer Art. Article Av., Ave. Avenue Bal. Balance Bd. Bound Bdl. Bundle Bds. Boards Bldg. Building B.O. Buyer’s Option Bro(s). Brother; Brothers Chap. Chapter C.I.F. Cost, insurance, freight Co. Company C.O.D. Cash on Delivery Cr. Creditor Dept. Department Do. Ditto, the same Dr. Debtor E.E. Errors excepted E.O.D. Every other day E. & O.E. Errors and omissions excepted Etc. (_Et cetera_) and so forth Ex., Exch. Exchange Exp. Express Fgt. Freight F.O.B. Free on board H. Hour H.P. Half pay, horse-power {77} Incor. Incorporated Ins. Insurance K.D. Knock down (_of furniture_, etc.) L.P. Large paper Memo. Memorandum Mfg. Manufacturing Mfr. Manufacturer Min. Minute No. (_numero_) number O.K. All right Payt. Payment Pd. Paid Per an. (_Per annum_) by the year Per cent. (_Per centum_) by the hundred Pkg. Package Pl. Plate, plates Pref. Preface Rd. Road Rem. Remarks Rep. Reports R.R. Railroad Ry. Railway Ser. Series Sq. Square S.S. Steamship, steamer T.F. Till forbidden 7. GEOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS Ala. Alabama Alaska Alaska Ariz. Arizona Ark. Arkansas Austral. Australasia {78} B.A. British America Br. Col. British Columbia Cal. California Can. Canada C.B. Cape Breton Colo. Colorado Conn. Connecticut C.W. Canada West (Ontario) D.C. District of Columbia Del. Delaware Den. Denmark E. East (London Postal District) East Isl. Eastern Islands E.C. East Central (London Postal District) E.I. East Indies Eng. England, English Fin. Finland Fla. Florida Ga. Georgia G.B. Great Britain Glas. Glasgow H.I. Hawaiian Islands Ia. Iowa Idaho Idaho Ill. Illinois Ind. Indiana Ind. Ter. Indian Territory (_now Oklahoma_) Ire. Ireland It. Italy Jam. Jamaica Jap. Japan Kan. Kansas Ky. Kentucky La. Louisiana L.C. Lower Canada {79} Man. Manitoba Mass. Massachusetts Md. Maryland Me. Maine Mex. Mexico Mich. Michigan Minn. Minnesota Miss. Mississippi Mo. Missouri Mont. Montana N. North (London Postal District) N.A. North America N.B. New Brunswick; North Britain (Scotland) N.C. North Carolina N. Dak. North Dakota N.E. New England; Northeast (London Postal District) Neb. Nebraska Neth. Netherlands Nev. Nevada N.F. Newfoundland N.H. New Hampshire N.J. New Jersey N. Mex. New Mexico N.S. Nova Scotia N.W. Northwest (London Postal District) N.Y. New York N.Y.C. New York City N. Zeal. New Zealand O. Ohio Okla. Oklahoma Ont. Ontario Ore. Oregon Pa. Pennsylvania Pal. Palestine P.D. Postal District (London) {80} P.E.I. Prince Edward Island Per. Persia Phila. Philadelphia P.I. Philippine Islands Port. Portugal P.R. Porto Rico Prus. Prussia Que. Quebec R.A. Russian America (_now Alaska_) R.I. Rhode Island Russ. Russia S. South (London Postal District) S.A. South America S.C. South Carolina Scot. Scotland Sc. Pen. Scandinavian Peninsula S. Dak. South Dakota S. E. Southeast (London Postal District) Sic. Sicily S. Isl. Sandwich Islands Soc. Isl. Society Islands S. lat. South latitude Sp. Spain Sw. Sweden Switz. Switzerland Syr. Syria Tenn. Tennessee Tex. Texas U.C. Upper Canada (Ontario) U.K. United Kingdom U.S. United States U.S.A. United States of America Utah Utah V. Victoria Va. Virginia Vt. Vermont {81} W. Welsh, West; West (London Postal District) Wash. Washington W.C. West Central (London Postal District) W.I. West Indies W. lon. West longitude W. Va. West Virginia Wis. Wisconsin Wyo. Wyoming 8. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS A.C. (_Ante Christum_) before Christ A.D. (_Anno Domini_) in the year of our Lord Ad lib. (_Ad libitum_) at pleasure Adj. Adjective Adv. Adverb Aet. (_Aetatis_) of age, aged A.H. (_Anno Hegirae_) in the year of the Hegira Alt. Altitude A.M. (_Anno Mundi_) in the year of the world; (_Ante Meridiem_) before noon An. (_Anno_) in the year An. A.C. (_Anno ante Christum_) in the year before Christ Anat. Anatomy Anc. Ancient Ang.-Sax. Anglo-Saxon Anom. Anomalous Anon. Anonymous Ap. Apostle Apo. Apogee Apoc. Apocalypse, Apocrypha A.R. (_Anno regni_) in the year of the reign Arch. Architecture A.R.R. (_Anno regni regis_) in the year of the reign of the king Arr. Arrival Art. Article {82} Assoc., Assn. Association Astrol. Astrology Astron. Astronomy A.U.C. (_anno urbis conditae_) in the year of the building of the city (Rome) Auth. Ver. or A.V. Authorized Version (of the Bible) Av. Average Ave. Avenue B. (_Basso_) Bass; bay; born B.C. Before Christ Boul. Boulevard B.V. (_Bene Vale_) Farewell C. Cape Caet. par. (_Caeteris paribus_) other things being equal Cap. (_Caput_) Chapter C. or Cent. Centigrade Cf. (_confer_) compare Ch. Child or children C.H. Court House Chap. Chapter Circ. Circle(s) Cit. Citizen Col. Column Coll. College Comp. Companion; comparative Cong. Congress C.Q.D. Marconi distress signal D.B. Domesday Book D.C. (_Da Capo_) From the beginning; again Dec. Declination Deg. Degree(s) Del. (_Delineavit_) he drew it Dem. Democrat D.G. (_Dei gratia_) by the grace of God; (_Deo gratias_) thanks to God D.V. (_Deo volente_) God willing {83} E. East; Eagle(s) Ea. Each E.B. English Bible (common) Ed. Editor, Edition E.E. Errors excepted E.g. (_Exempli gratia_) by way of example Elec. Electricity E.N.E. East-northeast Ent. Entomology E.S.E. East-southeast Et al. (_Et alibi_) and elsewhere; (_et alii_) and others Etc. (_Et caetera_) and so forth Et seq. (_Et sequentia_) the following Ex. Example Exc. Exception F., Fahr. Fahrenheit (thermometer) Fec. (_Fecit_) he made it Fem. or f. Feminine Fig.(s) Figure(s) Finn. Finnish Fol. or f., ff. Folio(s) For. Foreign Ft. Fort Gent. Gentleman Ger. German Goth. Gothic Gr. Greek H. Husband Hdkf. Handkerchief H.e. (_Hoc est_) that is, or, this is Hist. History, Historical H.J.S. (_Hic jacet sepultus_) here lies buried H.M.P. (_Hoc monumentum posuit_) erected this monument H.R.I.P. (_Hic requiescit in pace_) here lies in peace H.S. (_Hic situs_) here lies {84} Ibid., Ib. (_Ibidem_) in the same place Id. (_Idem_) the same I.e. (_Id est_) that is I.H.S. First letters of ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, Greek for _Jesus_[12] Illus. Illustrated Imp. Imperative (mood) Incog. (_Incognito_) unknown Indef. Indefinite Indic. Indicative (mood) Infin. Infinitive (mood) In lim. (_In limine_) at the outset In loc. (_In loco_) in the place Inst. (_Instante_) the current month Int. Interest Interj. Interjection In trans. (_In transitu_) on the passage Ion. Ionic Ir. Irish Irreg. Irregular Isl. Island Ital. Italic Itin. Itinerary J.H.S. See I.H.S. Jour. Journal Lat. Latin, latitude L.c. (_Loco citato_) in the place cited L.l. (_Loco laudato_) in the place quoted Lon. or Long. Longitude L.S. (_Locus sigilli_) place of the seal LXX The Septuagint M. (_Meridies_) noon M. Married Mem. Memorandum, Memoranda Mgr. Manager Misc. Miscellaneous Mo.(s) Month, months {85} M.S. (_Memoriae sacrum_) sacred to the memory MS. (_Manuscriptum_) manuscript MSS. Manuscripts Mt. Mount, _Mont_ Myth. Mythology N. Noun; note(s) Nat. National Naut. Nautical N.B. (_Nota Bene_) note well Nem. con. or (_Nemine contradicente_ or _nemine nem. diss. dissentiente_) none opposing N.l. (_Non liquet_) it does not appear N. lat. North latitude N.N.E. North-northeast N.N.W. North-northwest Nom. Nominative Nol. pros. (_Nolle prosequi_) indicates in law that a complaint will not be prosecuted N.S. New Style (_after 1752_) N.T. New Testament N.u. name(s) unknown N.V.M. Nativity of the Virgin Mary N.W. Northwest Ob. (_Obiit_) he or she died Obj. Objective (case) Obs. Obsolete O.F. Odd Fellow(s) Olym. Olympiad O.H.M.S. On His Majesty’s Service Op. Opposite O.S. Old Style (_before 1752_) O.T. Old Testament P. or pp. Page or pages Par. or ¶ Paragraph Par. Pas. Parallel Passage(s) Parl. Parliament Part. Participle {86} Partic. Particle Pass. Passive (voice) Pen. Peninsula Pent. Pentecost Perf. Perfect (tense) Pers. Person Pers. pron. Personal Pronoun Persp. Perspective Phil. Philosophy Pinx. (_Pinxit_) he painted it Pl. Plate(s) Plur. Plural Plup. Pluperfect Plff. Plaintiff P.M. (_Post meridiem_) afternoon to midnight P.O. Post-office Pop. Population Posit. Positive P.p. Past participle P.P.C. (_Pour prendre congé_) to take leave P. pr. Participle present Pro tem. (_Pro tempore_) for the time being P.R. (_Populus Romanus_) the Roman people Pret. Preterite tense Pron. Pronoun Pr. p. Present participle Pref. Preface P.S. Privy Seal P.T.O. Please turn over Pt. Point Pub. Publisher Pub. Doc. Public Document(s) Q. Question Q.B. Queen’s Bench Q.C. Queen’s College; Queen’s Council Q.d. (_Quasi dicat_) as if he should say; (_Quasi dictum_) as if said; (_Quasi dixisset_) as if he had said Q.E. (_Quod est_) which is {87} Q.E.D. (_Quod erat demonstrandum_) which was to be proved Q.E.F. (_Quod erat faciendum_) which was to be done Q.l. (_Quantum libet_) as much as you please Q. Mess. Queen’s Messenger Qm. (_Quomodo_) by what means, how Q.p. or q. pl. (_Quantum placet_) as much as you please Qr. Quarter Q.s. (_Quantum sufficit_) a sufficient quantity Q.v. (_Quantum vis_) as much as you will Q.v. (_Quod vide_) which see Qy. Query R., Reaum Reaumur (thermometer) R. (_Regina_) Queen; (_Rex_) King Rem. Remark(s) R.A. Royal Academy; Royal Academician; Royal Artillery R. E. Royal Engineers Recd. Received Rect. Rector Ref. Reformation; Reformed Ref. Ch. Reformed Church Ref. Reference Regr. Registrar Regt. Regiment Rel. pron. Relative Pronoun Rep. Representative Repub. Republican R.M. Royal Marines R.N. Royal Navy Ro. (_Recto_) right-hand page Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic R.P. (_Res Publica_) Republic Ru. Runic S. Solo (_in Italian music_); South S. SS. Section(s), Saint(s) S.a. (_Secundum artem_) according to art {88} Sax. Saxon S.C. (_Senatus consultum_) a decree of the Senate S.C (_in law_) same case Sch. Schooner(s) Schol. (_Scholium_) a note Sci. Science Sculp. (_Sculpsit_) he engraved S.E. Southeast Sen. Senate; Senator Seq. or sq. (_Sequente_) and in what follows Seqq. or sqq. (_Sequentibus_) and in the following (places) Ser. Series Shak. Shakspere Sing. Singular (number) S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court S. lat. South latitude S.O.S. Marconi distress signal S.P. (_Sine prole_) without issue Sp. gr. Specific gravity S.P.Q.R. (_Senatus Populusque Romanus_) the Senate and the Roman People S.R.I. (_Sacrum Romanum Imperium_) the Holy Roman Empire S.R.S. (_Societatis Regiae Socius_) Fellow of the Royal Society S.S. Sunday School S.S.E. South-southeast S.S.W. South-southwest St. Saint; street Stat. Statute(s) Ster. Sterling Subj. Subjunctive Subst. Substantive Su.-Goth. Suio-Gothic Super. Superfine Superl. Superlative S.W. Southwest {89} T. Tenor (_in music_); (_Tutti_) the whole orchestra, after a solo Ter. Territory Term. Termination Theor. Theorem Tr. Translator; transpose Um. Unmarried Univ. University U.S.A. United States Army U.S.M. United States Mail U.S.N. United States Navy U.S.S. United States Ship U.s. (_Ut supra_) as above Vat. Vatican V.a. Verb active V. aux. Verb auxiliary V. def. Verb defective V. dep. Verb deponent Ven. Venerable V.g. (_Verbi gratiâ_) for example V. imp. Verb impersonal V. in Verb intransitive V. irr. Verb irregular V. n. Verb neuter Vo. (_Verso_) left-hand page Voc. Vocative Vol. Volume V. r. Verb reflexive V. tr. Verb transitive V. Vulgate (Version) W. West; wife W. lon. West longitude W.N.W. West-northwest W.S.W. West-southwest Xmas Christmas Zoöl. Zoölogy [12] Erroneously _Jesus hominum Salvator_. {90} 9. SCRIPTURAL ABBREVIATIONS OLD TESTAMENT (O. T.) Gen. Exod. Lev. Num. Deut. Josh. Judg. Ruth I and II Sam. I and II Kings I and II Chron. Ezra Neh. Esth. Job Ps. (Pss.) Prov. Eccles. Song of Sol. (or Cant.) Isa. Jer. Lam. Ezek. Dan. Hos. Joel Amos Obad. Jonah Mic. Nah. Hab. Zeph. Hag. Zech. Mal. NEW TESTAMENT (N. T.) Matt. Mark Luke John Acts Rom. I and II Cor. Gal. Eph. Phil. Col. I and II Thess. I and II Tim. Titus Philem. Heb. Jas. I and II Pet. I, II, and III John Jude Rev. APOCRYPHA I and II Esd. Tob. = Tobit Jud. = Judith Rest of Esther Wisd. of Sol. Eccles. Bar. Song of Three Children Sus. Bel and Dragon Pr. of Man. I, II, II, and IV Macc. 10. MONETARY SIGNS $ Dollar or dollars cts. Cents gn. Guinea £ (_English_) Pound or pounds ∠ or s. Shilling or shillings {91} d. (_Denarius_) penny or pence fr. Franc or francs c. (_French_) Centime or centimes m. Mark or marks pf. Pfennig or pfennigs cr. (_Austrian_) Crown or crowns hr. Heller or hellers rub. Ruble or rubles kop. Kopec or kopecs kr. (_Danish_) Crown or crowns öro, öre Oro or öre £ (_Italian_) Lira or lire c. (_Italian_) Centesimo or centesimi 11. MATHEMATICAL SIGNS + Plus − Minus ± Plus or minus ∓ Minus or plus × Multiplied by[13] ÷ Divided by = Equal to ≠ Not equal to ≡ Identical with ≢ Not identical with ≅ Congruent to ＞ Greater than ＜ Less than ≏ The difference between ≎ Is equivalent to ∫ Integration ∶ and ∷ Proportion ∝ Varies as ≐ Approaches as a limit ∞ Infinity ∴ Therefore {92} ∵ Because ⋯ Continuation √ The radical sign ⊥ Perpendicular to [∟5] Factorial sign ∥ Parallel ⌒ Arc of circle ° Degree of circle ′ Minute of circle ″ Second of circle ∠ ⦠ Angle ∟ Right angle □ Square ▭ Rectangle ▱ Parallelogram △ Triangle [13] This is also indicated algebraically by a dot, as, _a_ · _b_ 12. MEDICAL SIGNS āā (ἀνά) of each ℞ (_Recipe_) take ℥, ℥i Ounce, one ounce ℥ss Half an ounce ℥iss One ounce and a half ℥ij Two ounces Ʒ Drachm ℈ Scruple ○ (_Octavius_) Pint ℥ Fluid ounce Ʒ Fluid drachm _m._ Minim or drop {93} NUMERALS According to Astle, the combination of Greek numerical characters was not well known to the Latins before the thirteenth century, although Greek numerical characters were frequently used in France and Germany in episcopal letters, and continued to the eleventh century. But of all the Greek ciphers the episemon βαῦ was most in use with the Latins; it gradually assumed the form of _G_ with a tail, for so it appears in a Latin inscription of the year 296. It is found to have been used in the fifth century in Latin MSS. It was reckoned for 6, and this value has been evinced by such a number of monumental proofs, that there is no room to give it any other. Some of the learned, with even Mabillon, have been mistaken in estimating it as 5, but in a posthumous work he acknowledges his error. Those authors were led into this error by the medals of the Emperor Justinian having the episemon for 5; but it is a certain fact that the coiners had been mistaken and confounded it with the tailed _U_, for the episemon was still in use in the fourth century, and among the Latins was estimated as 6, but {94} under a form somewhat different. Whenever it appears in other monuments of the western nations of Europe of that very century and the following, it is rarely used to express any number except 5. The Etruscans also used their letters for indicating numbers by writing them from right to left, and the ancient Danes copied the example in the application of their letters. The Romans, when they borrowed arts and sciences from the Greeks, learned also their method of using alphabetical numeration. This custom, however, was not very ancient among them. Before writing was yet current with them, they made use of nails for reckoning years, and the method of driving those nails became in process of time a ceremony of their religion. The first eight Roman numerals were composed of the I and the V. The Roman ten was composed of the V proper and the V inverted (Ʌ), which characters served to reckon as far as forty; but when writing became more general, I, V, X, L, C, D, and M were the only characters appropriated to the indication of numbers. The above seven letters, in their most extensive combination, produce six hundred and sixty-six thousand, ranged thus, DCLXVIM. Some, however, contend that the Romans were strangers to any higher number than 100,000. The want of ciphers obliged them to double, treble, and multiply {95} their numerical characters four-fold, according as they had occasion to make them express units, tens, hundreds, etc. For the sake of brevity they had recourse to another expedient: by drawing a small line over any of their numeral characters they made them stand for as many thousands as they contained units. Thus a small line over Ī made it 1000, and over ̄X expressed 10,000, etc. When the Romans wrote several units together in succession, the first and last were longer than the rest IIIIII; thus _vir_ after those six units signified _sex-vir_. D stood for 500, and the perpendicular line of this letter was sometimes separated from the body thus (IↃ,) without lessening its value. M, whether capital or uncial, expressed 1000. In the uncial form it sometimes assumed that of one of those figures, CIↃ, CD, ∞, ⅿ. The cumbent X was also used to signify a similar number. In ancient MSS. 4 is written IIII and not IV, 9 thus VIIII and not IX, etc. Instead of V five units, IIIII, were sometimes used in the eighth century. Half was expressed by an S at the end of the figures, CIIS was put 102 1/2. This S sometimes appeared in the form of our 5. In some old MSS. those numerical figures LXL are used to express 90. The Roman numeral letters were generally used both in England, France, Italy, and Germany, from the earliest times to the middle of the fifteenth century. {96} The ancient people of Spain made use of the Roman ciphers. The X with the top of the right-hand stroke in form of a semi-circle reckoned for 40; it merits the more particular notice as it has misled many of the learned. The Roman ciphers, however, were continued in use with the Spaniards until the fifteenth century. The Germans used the Roman ciphers for a long time, nearly in the same manner as the French. The points after the Roman ciphers were exceedingly various, and never rightly fixed. It is not known when the ancient custom was first introduced of placing an O at top immediately after the Roman characters, as Aº Mº Lº VIº etc. NUMERAL LETTERS _Roman_ _Arabic_ Unus, a, um I 1 Duo, ae, o II 2 Tres, ia III 3 Quatuor IV [IIII] 4 Quinque V 5 Sex VI 6 Septem VII 7 Octo VIII 8 Novem IX 9 Decem X 10 Undecim XI 11 Duodecim XII 12 Tredecim XIII 13 Quatuordecim XIV 14 Quindecim XV 15 Se(sex)decim XVI 16 Septemdecim XVII 17 {97} Octodecim or XVIII 18 Duodeviginti Novemdecim or XIX 19 Undeviginti Viginti XX 20 Triginta XXX 30 Quadraginta XL 40 Quinquaginta L 50 Sexaginta LX 60 Septuaginta LXX 70 Octoginta LXXX 80 Nonaginta XC 90 Centum C 100 Ducenti-ae-a CC 200 Trecenti-ae-a CCC 300 Quadringenti-ae-a CCCC 400 Quingenti-ae-a IↃ or D 500 Sexcenti-ae-a DC 600 Septingenti-ae-a DCC 700 Octingenti-ae-a DCCC 800 Nongenti-ae-a DCCCC or CM 900 Mille M or CIↃ 1000 Duo millia or MM 2000 Bis mille Tria millia or MMM 3000 Ter mille Quatuor millia or MMMM 4000 Quater mille Quinque millia or IↃↃ or ̄V 5000 Quinquies mille Decem millia or CCIↃↃ or ̄X 10,000 Decies mille Quinquaginta millia or IↃↃↃ or ̄L 50,000 Quinquaquies mille Centum millia or CCCIↃↃↃ or ̄C 100,000 Centies mille Quingenta millia or IↃↃↃↃ or ̄D 500,000 Quingenties mille Decies centena millia CCCCIↃↃↃↃ or ̄M 1,000,000 {98} If the lesser number is placed before the greater, the lesser is to be deducted from the greater; thus IV signifies one less than 5, i.e., 4; IX, 9; XC, 90. If the lesser number be placed after the greater, the lesser is to be added to the greater; thus VI signifies one more than 5, i.e., 6; XI, 11; CX, 110. A horizontal stroke over a numeral denotes a thousand; thus ̄V signifies five thousand; ̄L, fifty thousand; ̄M, a thousand times a thousand, or a million. I, signifies _one_, because it is the smallest letter. V, _five_, because it is sometimes used for U, the fifth vowel. X, _ten_, because it represents two V’S. L, _fifty_, from its resemblance to the lower half of C. C, _a hundred_, centum. IↃ or D, _five hundred_, the half of CIↃ. M or CIↃ, _a thousand_, from _mille_. The latter figures joined at the top, ⅿ, formed the ancient M. {99} CORRECT AND FAULTY DICTION Correctness is the primary requisite of spoken or written discourse. Language must not be only understood, but it must convey all the meaning which the writer intends to express. As a guide to those who are bewildered by the many cases of divided usage, the following adaptation of certain canons, framed by Dr. Campbell over a century ago and used as a basis by every later writer on Rhetoric, are here given: «Canon I.» — When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference should be given to the latter: e.g., _admittance_ is better than _admission_, as the latter word also means “confession”; _relative_ is to be preferred to _relation_, as the latter also means the telling of a story. «Canon II.» — In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the language: _might better_ should be preferred to _had better_, and _would rather_ is better than _had rather_. «Canon III.» — The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things being equal: {100} e.g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as, _open_ [_up_], _meet_ [_together_], _follow_ [_after_], _examine_ [_into_], _trace_ [_out_], _bridge_ [_over_], _crave_ [_for_], etc. «Canon IV.» — Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer the one which is more euphonious: e.g., _most beautiful_ is better than _beautifullest_, and _more free_ is to be preferred to _freer_. «Canon V.» — In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that which conforms to the older usage: e.g., _begin_ is better than _commence_. Familiarity with the writings of those authors whose style is accepted as conforming to the standards of good usage is an essential to all those who seek accuracy in correct expression, and the following authors may be studied with this in mind: Addison, Matthew Arnold, Burke, DeQuincey, George Eliot, Emerson, Hawthorne, Holmes, Irving, Macaulay, John Stuart Mill, Newman, Poe, Ruskin, Stevenson, and Thackeray. The various standard dictionaries may be consulted regarding words which are questionable when measured by good usage. The function of the dictionary is to record all words in general use, but a careful record is made as to the classes to which the various words belong. Good usage, for instance, does not recognize the word _vim_, yet it will be found in the Century Dictionary; but at {101} the end of the definition an entry [_Colloq._] is placed, showing that it is authorized only by colloquial use. The following list of words and phrases which are most commonly misused will be found useful. The correct words are added in brackets: «Accept», see «Except» «Admire», should not be used to express delight: e.g., _I should admire_ [be delighted] _to go to California_ «Admit», see «Confess» ADVERBS: should usually be placed next to the words they modify. (See also «Infinitive») «Affable», means “easy to speak to,” and should not be used for _agreeable_ «Affect», should not be confused with _effect_: e.g., _She was deeply affected by the news_; or _The news had a serious effect upon her_; or _The effect of the news was serious_ «Aggravate», should not be used for _annoy_ or _vex_. It means “to make worse”: e.g., _His cold was aggravated by the exposure_ «Ain’t», is a contraction of _am not_. It is inelegant though grammatically correct to say, _I ain’t_, but it is absolutely wrong to say, _He ain’t_, etc. «All right», should never be written _alright_ «Alternative», should not be used in speaking of one of more than two things «And», should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position as to interfere with the construction: e.g., _I acknowledge the receipt of your letter, (and) for which I send you my cordial thanks_. Omit the conjunction «Any place», should be written _anywhere_ «Apparently», is used of what seems to be real, but may not be so; _evidently_ of that which both seems and is real {102} «Apt», means skilful and should not be used for _likely_. _He is apt to be here soon_ should be _He is likely to be here soon_; _He is an apt pupil_ is correct ARTICLES: when superfluous, are misleading and should be omitted; but it is more frequently the case that necessary articles are omitted: e.g., _The army and navy_ signifies a single organization. Insert _a_ before _navy_ «As», should not be used as a causal conjunction: e.g., _Do not expect me (as) I am too uncertain of my time_. The word _as_ stands here as a contraction of _inasmuch as_. Substitute a semicolon: e.g., _Do not expect me; I am too uncertain of my time_. «As . . . as», see «So . . . as» «At», is often incorrectly used for _in_: e.g., _They are living at_ [in] _Florence_ «At length», does not mean the same as _at last_. Say _At length he showed signs of relenting_, and _At last he relented_ «Aught», is frequently confused with _naught_. It means “anything,” whereas the symbol 0 means “nothing” «Avail», should be used with _of_ only with some form of _be_; otherwise _to_ is the proper word: e.g., _He called lustily, but of_ [to] _no avail_; or _He called lustily, but_ [_it was_] _of no avail_ «Aware», is used in relation to things outside of ourselves; _conscious_ in relation to sensations or things within ourselves «Awful», should not be used loosely. It means “inspiring with awe.” To say _I had an awfully good time_ is as ridiculous as it is meaningless «Badly», should not be used for _very much_ or _a great deal_. The expression, _If you don’t care to do a thing very badly, do it very badly_, shows the absurdity. Do not confuse the adjective with the adverb. _He looks badly_ means “He makes a bad use of his eyes.” _He looks bad_ is correct «Bank on», a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say _rely on_ or _trust in_ {103} «Beg», should never be used without the word _leave_, when asking permission. In correspondence one often sees the expressions, _I beg to state_, _I beg to differ_. One should say, _I beg leave to state_, _I beg leave to differ_ «Bring», see «Take» «But», is sometimes used as a preposition, and when so used takes the objective case: e.g., _The invitation included all but him_ is correct «Can», denotes power, and should not be used for _may_, which denotes permission. The following sentence shows the correct use of both words: _He may do it if he can_ «Cannot but», should not be used interchangeably with _can but_, as the two expressions differ in meaning: e.g., _I can but try_ means “All I can do is to try”; _I cannot but try_ means “I cannot help trying” «Can’t seem», should not be used for _seem unable_: e.g., _I can’t seem_ [seem unable] _to find it_ CASE: the nominative is sometimes wrongly used for the objective case: e.g., _Let He_ [Him] _who made thee answer that_ «Childlike», means that belonging to the child; _childish_, means the weakness of the child «Come», see «Go» «Common», see «Mutual» «Confess», should not be used in the sense of _admit_, in cases in which no idea of confession enters «Conscious», see «Aware» «Continual», meaning “frequently repeated acts,” should not be confused with _continuous_ meaning “uninterrupted action”: e.g., _Continual nagging spoils the disposition_, and _The continuous flowing of a stream_ «Deadly», which means “that which inflicts death,” should not be confused with _deathly_, which means “that which resembles death”: e.g., _A deadly poison_, and _A deathly pallor_ {104} «Decided», means “strong,” _decisive_ means “final.” _A decided opinion_ does not mean the same as _a decisive opinion_ «Definite», means “well-defined”; _definitive_ means “final” «Demean», which signifies “to behave” oneself, should not be used for _degrade_ or _debase_ «Different», should never be followed by the word _than_. Say, _Different from_ «Directly», should not be used for _as soon as_: e.g., _Directly_ [as soon as] _he arrived_ «Discover», is to find something which previously existed; _invent_ is to produce something for the first time «Don’t», is a contraction of _do not_. One may say, _I don’t_, but not _He don’t_. Say, _He doesn’t_ «Each other», should not be misused for _one another_. One may say, _The two cousins were devoted to each other_; or _Many suggestions were made, following one another in rapid succession_ «Effect», see «Affect» «Egoists», are those who made the _ego_ the basis of their philosophy; _egotists_ are those who worship themselves «Either», should not be used to designate more than two persons or things. To designate one of three or more, say _Any one_ «Enormity», describes deeds of unusual horror; _enormousness_ describes things of unusual size «Enthuse» (verb), is not recognized by good usage. _I became enthused_ should be written _I became enthusiastic_ «Every place», should be written _everywhere_ «Excellent», should never be qualified as it is a superlative: e.g., _most excellent_, _very excellent_, and the like are impossible. (See also «Superlatives») «Except» (verb), signifies “to exclude”: e.g., _Present company excepted_. As a preposition it means “with the exception.” It should not be confused with _accept_, which signifies “to receive” {105} «Exceptional», describes a case outside the operation of a rule; _exceptionable_ is that which is open to criticism: e.g., _Exceptionable_ conduct is that to which _exception_ can be taken «Expect», should not be used as a synonym for _think_ or _suppose_ «Falseness» (of a person) is the opposite of _truthfulness_; _falsity_ (of a thing) is the opposite of _truth_ «Fix», should not be used in the sense of _repair_. It means “to attach” «Former», should not be used to designate one of more than two persons or things. If reference is made to one of three or more, say _The first_ «Gentleman», should be used to designate only a person of refinement, and never as a mere designation of sex. The use of the word _man_ is never out of place «Gentleman friend», is an expression which should be avoided, owing to the use which has been made of it. Say _man friend_ or _man friends_, or _gentleman of my acquaintance_ «Go», should not be confused with _come_: e.g., _I will come_ [go] _to you when you need me_ «Got», is said to be the most misused word in the language. _I have got to go_ should be _I am obliged to go_. _Have you got time?_ should be _Have you time?_ etc. The verb means “to secure,” so it must be used only with this meaning: e.g., _I have got the contract_ «Gotten», is an obsolete form. Say _got_ «Guess», is loosely used for _suppose_, _expect_, or _intend_, but is avoided by the best writers «Hanged», see «Hung» «Hardly», should never be preceded by the negative: e.g., _That is not hardly enough_. Omit _not_ «He», see «Him» «Healthful», means “health-giving,” as applied to articles of food; _healthy_ is the condition of the person {106} «Her», is often misused for _she_: e.g., _It is her_ [she]; _Such a woman as her_ [she] «Him», is often misused for _he_: e.g., _It is him_ [he]; _Let He_ [Him] _who made thee answer that_; _A style that belongs to no other than he_ [him] «Hoi polloi», should not be written _the hoi polloi_. _Hoi_ is Greek for “the” «Honorable», should always be preceded by _the_: e.g., _The Honorable James Brown Smith_ «How», should not be used for _what_: e.g., _How_ [what] _did you say_? «Hung», should be distinguished from _hanged_: e.g., _The man was hanged_, but _The flag was hung across the street_ «I», see «Me» «If», should never be used in the sense of _whether_ or _that_: e.g., _He is not sure if he remembers_ should be _He is not sure whether_ [or _that_] _he remembers_ «In», should not be used for _into_, when motion is implied: e.g., _He stepped in_ [into] _the boat_. See also «At» INFINITIVE: the verb should never be separated from _to_, the sign of the infinitive word, by an adverb: e.g., _It is not possible for me to absolutely promise_ should be _to promise absolutely_ -ING: when using verbal nouns ending in _-ing_ be careful to distinguish them from participles having the same ending. A verbal noun must never be preceded by an adverb: e.g., _That proved of as little use as his afterward trying to explain his presence there_ should be _as his trying afterward to explain_ «Inside of», is a vulgarism when used in the sense of _within_: e.g., _The snow will be gone inside of_ [within] _a week_ «Invent», see «Discover» «Kind», is singular. The common expression _those kind_ is absolutely wrong. Say _this kind_ or _these kinds_, _that kind_ or _those kinds_ «Kind of», should not be followed by the article _a_ or _an_. Say _What kind of man is he?_ not _What kind of a man is he?_ {107} «Lady», see «Gentleman» «Lady friend», see «Gentleman friend» «Last», should not be used for _latest_. “Have you read my last book?” asked the author. “I hope so,” was the frank reply «Latter», signifies one of two persons or things. In making reference to one of three or more, say _The last_ «Lay», should not be confused with _lie_. Hens _lay_, men _lie_ «Less», is a vulgarism when used for _fewer_: e.g., _There were less_ [fewer] _accidents in football this season_ «Liable», should not be used for _likely_: e.g., _It is liable_ [likely] _to rain today_. Its proper sense is shown in the sentence, _He is liable to arrest_ «Like», is a vulgarism when used for _as_ or _as if_: e.g., _I wish I could sing like_ [as] _you do_. See also «Love» «Likely», means “any probability”; _liable_ means an “unpleasant probability” «Loan», is not in accord with good usage when used as a verb: Say, _He lent me a dollar_, and _The loan was of real assistance_ «Locate», is a vulgarism when used for _settle_. Say, _He settled in Boston_, and _He located his business in Cambridge_ «Love», describes that which appeals to our affections; _like_, that which appeals to our taste, appetite or fancy «Luxuriant», means “superabundant”; _luxurious_ means “consequent upon luxury” «Mad», means “insane,” and is not a synonym for _angry_ «Man», see «Gentleman» «May», see «Can» «Me», is often wrongly used for _I_: e.g., _Between you and I_ [me]; _It is me_ [I]; _You know as well as me_ [I] «Means», may be either singular or plural. Say, _No other means was at hand_, or _Various means were suggested_ «Most», should not be used for _almost_ «Must», should not be used for _had to_ or _was obliged_: e.g., _The hour arrived when he must_ [had to] _decide_. In its proper use it refers to the present or future: e.g., _The hour will arrive when he must decide_ {108} «Mutual», should not be used in the sense of “shared in common,” as it means “reciprocal.” It can refer to but two persons or things. _Mutual_ friendship is that which exists between two friends; _common_ friendship that which is shared by two friends for a third «Negligence», implies failure to conform to an established custom; _neglect_ means “a failure to act” «Neither», signifies one of two. In designating one of three or more, say _No one_ «News», is singular in construction «Nice», should not be used loosely; as, _She was nice to us_. It means keenness in discrimination; as, _It was a fine point, nicely considered_. The incorrect use of this word is an Americanism especially offensive to the English. Oscar Wilde, when in America, remarked, “I think _nice_ is a nasty word,” to which his hearer retorted, “I don’t think _nasty_ is a nice word” «No place», should be written _nowhere_ «Nor», see «Or» «Not . . . but», forms a double negative: e.g., _I have not asked you but once_ should be _I have asked you but once_ «Notorious», is not a synonym for _celebrated_ or _famous_. It means “of bad repute” «Nowhere near», is a vulgarism for _not nearly_ NUMBER: pronouns are often used which differ in number from their antecedents: e.g., _Nobody should feel that their_ [his] _interests have been neglected_; _Each of the ladies, like two excellent actresses, were_ [was] _perfect in their_ [her] _parts_ [part]. Singular nouns are sometimes used with plural verbs, or the reverse: e.g., _None but the brave deserve_ [deserves] _the fair_; _There’s_ [there are] _the boys_ «Of», is sometimes wrongly used for _have_: e.g., _I shouldn’t of_ [have] _come if I had known_ «Or», should not be used with _neither_. Use _nor_ {109} «Ought», should never be combined with _had_: e.g., _You hadn’t ought to do that_ should be _You ought not to do that_ «Out loud», should never be used for _aloud_ «Partake of», should not be used in the sense of _eat_. It means “to share with others” «Party», should not be used for _person_ «Per», should not be used with English words. Say _One dollar a year_, or _One dollar per annum_ «Perception», means the inlet of all the materials of knowledge; _apperception_ means the knowledge that one possesses these materials. A man with _perception_ knows; a man with _apperception_ knows that he knows PLURALS: of foreign words should be carefully ascertained: e.g., _cherubim_ is the plural of _cherub_; _memoranda_, of _memorandum_; _data_, of _datum_; _donne_, of _donna_; _strata_, of _stratum_; _addenda_, of _addendum_; _rubaiyat_, of _rubai_. Do not say, _A memoranda_ «Pretty», should not be used in a modifying sense, nor as a synonym for _very_: e.g., _It is not as good as yours, but it is pretty_ [fairly] _good_; _I didn’t hit it, but I came pretty_ [very] _close_ «Propose», meaning “to offer,” should not be confused with _purpose_, meaning “to intend.” Say, _He proposed an amendment_, and _I have told you what I purpose_ «Quite», should not be used in a modifying sense as if meaning “rather.” _It is not what I expected, but it is quite good_ is wrong. The word means “wholly”: e.g., _Not quite_ = not wholly; _quite satisfactory_ = wholly satisfactory «Raise», should not be used as a noun «Rarely ever», is a vulgarism for _rarely_ or _hardly ever_ «Reference», should be used with _with_ rather than _in_. Say, _With reference to_ rather than _In reference to_ {110} «Regard», see «Reference» «Respect», see «Reference» «Reverend», should always be preceded by _the_: e.g., _The Reverend James Brown Smith_ «Same», should not be used as a pronoun: e.g., _Your letter received, and in reply [to same] would say_. Omit bracketed words «Same as», should not be used for _just as_ or _in the same way_: e.g., _Treat him the same_ [just] _as you would wish to be treated_ «Scarcely», see «Hardly» «Seldom ever», see «Rarely ever» «Sensible of», means “having perception”; _sensitive to_ means “affected by” «Set», should not be confused with _sit_. _To set_ means “to cause to sit”: e.g., _The bird sits upon the tree_, and _The waiter set two chairs for us_ «Sewage», means the contents of sewers; _sewerage_ means the system «Shall», signifies simple expectancy in the first person, and _will_ represents determination. This reverses with the second and third persons: e.g., EXPECTANCY, I shall (should), thou wilt (wouldst), he will (would), we shall (should), you will (would), they will (would). DETERMINATION, I will (would), thou shalt (shouldst), he shall (should), we will (would), you shall (should), they shall (should). This time-honored illustration of the misuse of these words is easily remembered: _I will drown, nobody shall save me_. In interrogative sentences, the forms of the future are the same as in a declarative sentence, and their proper use may be easily remembered by noting that the same auxiliary is used as is expected in the reply: e.g., _Shall you go?_ suggests merely future action, anticipating the reply, _I shall_ or _I shall not_; _Will you go?_ shows that the speaker expects a reply of determination, _I will_ or _I will not_ «She», see «Her» {111} «Should», ought not to be used for _to_: e.g., _I want you should_ [to] _do this_. (See also «Want».) As between _should_ and _would_, see «Shall». The same usage obtains, except that sometimes _should_ is used in the sense of _ought_: e.g., _He should be here now_; and _would_ sometimes signifies habitual action: e.g., _Whenever the name was mentioned he would speak slightingly of him_ «Show», should not be used for _play_: e.g., _I went to a show last evening_; nor in the sense of _chance_: e.g., _He has an excellent show of winning_ «Show up», is a vulgarism when used for _expose_ «Since», should not be used for _ago_. Say, _How long ago_ rather than _How long since_ «Size up», is a vulgarism when used for _estimate_ «So», should be used sparingly to modify an adjective: e.g., _I feel so unhappy_. It should not be used for _so that_: e.g., _I wrote him so_ [that] _he understood_ «So . . . as», is required, rather than the correlatives _as . . . as_ in negative statements: e.g., _James is not as_ [so] _clever as John_ «Some», should not be used for _somewhat_: e.g., _The patient is some_[what] _better_ «Some place», should be written _somewhere_ «Sort», see «Kind» «Sort of», should not be used for _rather_: e.g., _I feel sort of tired_ is incorrect. See also «Kind of» «Splendid», should not be used for _fine_ or _skilful_. It implies “splendor” «Start», should not be used for _begin_: e.g., _He started_ [began] _to speak_ «Stop», should not be used for _stay_: e.g., _I am stopping_ [staying] _with my uncle while in San Francisco_ «Take», is superfluous in connection with other verbs: e.g., _Suppose we [take and] use the drawings we have_. It should not be confused with _bring_: e.g., _I will bring_ [take] _it home with me_; _I will take_ [bring] _the book to you tomorrow_ {112} «Take stock in», is a slang expression not recognized by good usage. Say _rely on_ or _trust in_ TENSE: errors are often made by neglecting the principle that the time of the recorded action in the subordinate portion of a sentence is relative to the time of the principal clause. The tense of the dependent verb, therefore, is determined by its relation to the verb on which it depends: e.g., _I meant to have done it_ should be _I meant to do it_; _He expected to have told him_ should be _He expected to tell him_. A common mistake is made in replying to formal invitations: e.g., _Mr. Robert Gorham regrets that a previous engagement will prevent_ [prevents] _him from accepting_; _Mr. Gorham will be_ [is] _happy to accept_ «That», see «Which» «Them», is often misused for _they_: e.g., _It is them_ [they] «They», see «Them» «This», should not be used as an adverb. Say, _Thus much is clear_ rather than _This much is clear_, and _Having said thus much_ [or _as much as this_] . . . rather than _Having said this much_ . . . «Through», should not be used for _finished_. Say, _He has finished speaking_ rather than _He is through speaking_ «Too», alone should not modify a past participle: e.g., _He was too_ [much] _excited to reply_ «Treat», should be followed by _of_ rather than _on_: e.g., _This volume treats of conditions in China_ «Try», should be followed by _to_ rather than _and_: e.g., _I will try and_ [to] _get the information you desire_ «Ugly», should not be used in the sense of _vicious_ or _malicious_. It means “repulsive to the eye.” A color may be _ugly_, but an ill-tempered dog is _vicious_ VERBS: should not be omitted: e.g., _He could do it if he wished to_ [do it] «Very», should be used sparingly. Foreigners say that America is a country of superlatives, — if anything is good, it is _very_ good, and if bad, it is _very_ bad. Too {113} much emphasis weakens conversation or writing and defeats its object «Visitor», is a human caller; _visitant_, a supernatural one «Vocation», means “calling” or “profession”; _avocation_, means an interest outside one’s profession «Want», should not be used in the sense of _wish_: e.g., _I want it_ really means “I feel the want of it,” or “I lack it.” An example of the correct use of both words is, _China wishes the coöperation of the United States, — a coöperation which is at present wanting_ «Way», should not be used for _away_ «What», is often misused for _that_: e.g., _He has no doubt but what_ [that] _he will succeed_ «Whence», means “from where.” Do not say _from whence_ «Which», should not be used with a clause as its antecedent: e.g., _He replied hotly, which was a mistake_ should be _He replied hotly; this was a mistake_. Do not use _which_ (a neuter pronoun) to represent a masculine or feminine noun. Say _whom_. Between _which_ and _that_, let euphony decide «Who», is often misused for _whom_ or _whose_: e.g., _Who_ [whom] _did you wish to see?_ _Washington, than whom_ [whose] _no greater name is recorded in American history._ Impersonal objects should be referred to by _which_ rather than _who_ «Whom», see «Who» and «Which» «Will», see «Shall» «Woman», see «Gentleman» «Womanly», means “belonging to woman as woman”; _womanish_ means “effeminate” «Would», see «Should» {114} LETTER WRITING Although it is quite improbable that there will ever be a return to the painstaking, literary art of letter writing, of which we have so many admirable examples in the past, the value of the art as a medium of expressing personality must always be recognized. The force of business competition has introduced short-cuts in business correspondence which are regrettable from a literary standpoint; the universal use of the typewriter has altered conditions; the multiplicity of social demands makes impossible the leisurely written and carefully considered letters between friends which used to be a valued expression of friendship itself. These changes in conditions have been inevitable, but they do not explain the carelessness and the evidences of ignorance of even simple rules of expression and arrangement which are too frequently apparent in the letters even of those whose position in life demands more, in this respect, than they seem able or willing to give. For this reason the present writer does not hesitate to resort to elementary outlines in making clear the basis upon which the art of letter writing rests. {115} THE HEADING «I. Business.» — 1. The stationery of a business house invariably contains in its printed heading the name of the house and the location of the business, with a space for filling in the date. The arrangement, therefore, is arbitrarily and usually correctly fixed. The name of the city or town, with street address, if required, comes first, occupying one or two lines, followed by the date, always at the right, either in the same line or in a line by itself: e.g., BOSTON, 12 March, 1912 or 189 State St., Boston 12 March, 1912 2. If there is no punctuation at the ends of the printed lines, there should be no point used after the date. 3. The number of the day should not be followed by _st_, _nd_, _rd_, _d_, or _th_: e.g., _12 March_, not _12th March_. «II. Informal.» — 1. There is considerable latitude in the heading in informal or friendly letters. The address of the writer may be placed at the beginning or the end of the letter, or omitted altogether if well-known to the addressee. 2. The date may be at the beginning or the end, but should never be omitted. «III. Formal.» — 1. In formal letters the place and date should be written at the end, on the left. {116} THE ADDRESS «I. Business.» — 1. The name and address of the addressee should be placed at the beginning of every business letter, on the left, immediately preceding the salutation. It should be in two or three lines, the indention being either blocked[14] or _en échelon_[14]: e.g., Messrs. Smith, Robinson & Co. 713 Chestnut Street Philadelphia, Pa. (_blocked_) _or_ Messrs. Smith, Robinson & Co. (_en échelon_) _or_ Philadelphia, Pa. Messrs. Smith, Robinson & Co. 713 Chestnut Street (_en échelon_) Philadelphia, Pa. «II. Informal.» — 1. The same latitude is allowed here as in the matter of the date. It is customary, however, to omit the address in informal or friendly correspondence. «III. Formal.» — 1. The address is always placed at the end in formal letters, on the left, below the place and date. Its arrangement may be blocked[15] or _en échelon_,[15] but this should be the same arrangement as that adopted for the place and the address. 2. In making reply to formal invitations, the address of the addressee is omitted. THE SALUTATION «I. Business.» — 1. The salutation should be so written as to line with the first line of the address, on the left. {117} [14] See page 56. [15] See page 56. 2. Ordinarily it should occupy a line by itself, but when the address requires three lines, the salutation may be made a part of the body of the letter, being followed by a colon and a dash: e.g., _Gentlemen:―_ 3. When the salutation is in a line by itself it calls for a comma if the letter is informal, and for a colon if it is formal. 4. The proper form of the salutation is _Gentlemen_, _Dear Sir(s)_, _My dear Sir_ (if the letter is signed by an individual name), _Dear Madam_ or _My dear Madam_ (to a married or single woman), _Ladies_. 5. The proper capitalization is here shown. «II. Informal.» — 1. The salutation _Dear Sir_ is less formal than _My dear Sir_, although in England the opposite opinion prevails. 2. The capitalization is the same as in business letters; i.e., the first word and the word which stands in place of the person’s name are capitalized: e.g., _My own dear Sister_, _My dear Aunt Mary_, or _Dear John_, _My dear Friend_. 3. In an informal letter the comma is usually used after the salutation. 4. Do not use abbreviations in the salutation: e.g., write _Dear Doctor Smith_, not _Dear Dr. Smith_. 5. Do not omit the salutatory phrase: _Friend James_, or _Mr. James Smith_ is too abrupt. «III. Formal.» — 1. A letter to the President of the United States or to King George {118} should have the salutation _Sir_; to the Pope, _Your Holiness_; to the Vice-President, _Mr. Vice-President, Sir_; to a duke, _My Lord Duke_; to a baron, _My Lord_; to a cardinal, _Your Eminence_; to an archbishop in England, _My Lord Archbishop_, in the United States, _The Most Reverend ——, Sir_; to a bishop in England, _My Lord Bishop_, in the United States, _Most Reverend Sir_; to a dean or to an archdeacon, _Reverend Sir_; to a senator, congressman, mayor, or judge, _Sir_ or _Dear Sir_; to an ambassador, _To the —— Ambassador, Sir_. 2. A colon should follow the salutation in formal letters. THE TEXT OF THE LETTER «I. Business.»[16] — 1. The idea that curtness and brevity are essential characteristics of a business letter exists now only in the minds of the inexperienced, the ignorant, or the careless. One still finds stock phrases and omitted articles to a surprising extent, — so much so that a well-written business letter carries with it more weight because of the contrast which it offers. The writers of the best business letters today lose no time in getting to the point, but they extend to their correspondent the courtesy of correct diction. Arrangement, punctuation, spelling, and grammar reflect favorably or otherwise upon the reputation of the house. {119} [16] See example 1 on page 126. 2. Avoid such monotonous expressions as the following: (_a_) _Yours_, _your favor_, _your esteemed favor_; write _letter_. (_b_) _12th inst._, _12th_, _recent date_; write _12 March_. (_c_) _I will say_, _I would say_, _I can say_; write _Allow me to say_, or omit it altogether. (_d_) _In reply would say_; write _In reply I would say_, or _In reply allow me to say_. (_e_) _Same_, _the same_; write _it_ or _they_. (_f_) _Please find enclosed_; write _I enclose_. (_g_) _Hoping to hear soon_, _thanking you in advance_, _awaiting your response_, and _oblige_ have all become hackneyed. Omit them unless bearing specifically upon the text of the letter. 3. Do not omit _I_ or _We_ in such expressions as, _Beg[17] to acknowledge_, _Have been awaiting your advice_. 4. Do not use the first person singular when the letter is signed by the firm name. 5. Do not say _the writer_ in one portion of the letter and _I_ in another. 6. In arrangement, the first line of the text should begin on the line below the salutation, indented about one inch, and each paragraph should be similarly indented.[18] Another style, particularly useful when the letter covers several distinct subjects, is to use the reverse indention, with subheads in capitals at the extreme left.[19] {120} [17] This should be Beg leave to acknowledge. [18] See example 1 on page 126. [19] See example 2 on page 126. «II. Informal.»[20] — 1. However informal or friendly, a letter should tell what it has to say in a straightforward, coherent manner. Apologies for delay in writing, or for anything else except illness, absence from town, or other cause which demands explanation, are wasteful of paper, ink, and the time of two persons. 2. A general fault in informal letters is the paragraphing and punctuation. The writer should remember that he is trying to express to another mental ideas which have no opportunity to become crystallized by the sound of the voice. He should take especial pains to assist his correspondent in assimilating the thoughts which he expresses, by not running different topics together, and by separating phrases and sentences with their proper marks. «III. Formal.» — 1. The expedient of writing in the third person is adopted in formal social correspondence.[21] Notes of this kind should have no heading, address, complimentary close, or signature. The date alone, omitting the year, is used, being placed at the end on the left. No abbreviations other than _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Messrs._, and _Dr._ should be used. The date should be spelled out in full. 2. Notes written to tradespeople[22] conveying {121} orders or instructions are also frequently written in the third person. In this case, however, the address is always given at the end on the left, and the date, using figures, is also employed. There is no signature. [20] See example 3 on page 127. [21] See example 4 on page 127. [22] See example 5 on page 128. THE COMPLIMENTARY CLOSE I. «Business.» — 1. The accepted forms of complimentary closes of business letters are _Yours truly_, and _Yours very truly_. The forms _Respectfully yours_, _Your obedient servant_, and _Faithfully yours_ are now regarded as too obsequious. 2. The complimentary close should begin in the middle of a line by itself, below the concluding words of the text. 3. The first word alone should be capitalized. 4. A comma should be placed at end of the line. 5. Do not abbreviate any of the words in the complimentary close. Avoid such contractions as _Y’rs_ for _Yours_. 6. Expressions used to introduce the complimentary close, such as _With kind regards_, _I am_, _Believe me_, _Good-bye_, etc., should be treated as part of the concluding line of the text only when closely related to the final sentence; otherwise they occupy a separate line. II. «Informal.» — 1. The nature of the complimentary close of informal or friendly {122} letters depends upon the degree of intimacy which exists between the correspondents. The usual forms are, _Yours sincerely_, or _Yours very truly_, but they may properly be used as expressions of affection, as _Your devoted husband_, or _Your loving daughter_. III. «Formal.» — 1. There is no complimentary close to formal notes written in the third person. 2. The complimentary closes to formal letters addressed to persons in high positions are as follows: to the President of the United States, _I have the honor to be, Sir, your most obedient servant_; to King George, _I have the honor to be, Sir, Your Majesty’s most obedient servant_. This form is modified as the rank of the person addressed becomes less important. To a congressman, for instance, one would say no more than, _I have the honor to be_. THE SIGNATURE 1. The signature should be written on a line by itself, a little to the right of the complimentary close. 2. Women should always sign their full names or indicate in brackets how they should be addressed. Any one of the following forms is proper: _a._ (Miss) M. L. Brown _b._ (Mrs.) Ellen M. Brown _c._ Ellen M. Brown (Mrs. J. H. Brown) {123} 3. In letters to all except the family or intimate friends the Christian name and the surname should be signed in full. THE ENVELOPE 1. The arrangement of the address upon the envelope is largely a matter of taste. It usually occupies three or four lines, written _en échelon_,[23] but some writers prefer the blocked[24] formation. 2. In business letters the word street and the name of the state may be abbreviated, but in formal and informal letters it is better form to spell out in full. 3. Legibility is even more essential in the address than in the letter itself. 4. It is good form to write the street and number or the postoffice box in the lower left-hand corner. 5. The abbreviations _No._ and # before the figures in the street address should be omitted. 6. _In care of_ should be written out in full. 7. The stamp should always be placed in the upper right-hand corner, as a convenience to the postoffice officials. Care should be taken to affix the stamp neatly, as carelessness in this respect reflects upon the sender. 8. Punctuation may be omitted at the ends of the lines; otherwise use a comma, except at the end of the last line. {124} [23] See page 56. [24] See page 56. 9. The title _Esq._ is more complimentary than _Mr._, and the former should always be used when addressing men holding a college degree or of social standing. In formal social addresses _Mr._ (or _Dr._, etc.) is always used. 10. In addressing envelopes to persons in high positions the following forms should be used: To the President of the United States, _The President, Executive Mansion, Washington, D. C._; to King George, _His Majesty, the King, London_ (omit _England_, as this is considered a provincialism); to the Pope, _His Holiness, Pope Pius X., Rome_ (omit _Italy_); to a member of the Cabinet, _To the Honorable the Secretary of State_; to a duke, _His Grace, the Duke of ——_; to a baron, _The Right Honorable, the Lord ——_; to a cardinal, _To His Eminence, William Cardinal O’Connell_; to an archbishop in England, _The Most Reverend —— His Grace the Lord Archbishop of ——_; to a bishop in England, _The Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of ——_, in the United States, _The Right Reverend_ (Christian and surname), adding honorary titles; to a dean in England, _The Very Reverend the Dean of ——_; to an archdeacon in England, _The Venerable the Archdeacon_ (surname); to a senator, congressman, mayor, or judge, _Honorable_ (Christian and surname); to a governor, _His Excellency, the Governor of ——_; to an ambassador, _His Excellency the British Ambassador_. {125} POSTAL CARDS 1. Postal cards have become much more common during the past few years, the pictorial variety being particularly popular. The prejudice against their use has largely disappeared. 2. Postal cards do not require salutation or complimentary close. IN GENERAL 1. Use black ink and never use a pencil, even in friendly letters, except in an emergency. 2. Do not practise economy of paper by writing in the margin. 3. Fold the letter so that when taken from the envelope it will open right-side up. 4. Never omit the date from any note or letter, however unimportant. 5. In brief letters the first and fourth or first and third pages may be written upon, leaving the others blank. 6. Avoid postscripts except in an emergency. 7. Unruled paper should be used for all correspondence. 8. Typewritten letters are permissible only in business correspondence, and even in these the signature should be written by hand. 9. Any evidence of haste is a discourtesy. Never sign a letter, _Yours in haste_. 10. Underscoring is permissible only in informal letters and should be used sparingly. {126} EXAMPLES OF CORRECT LETTER WRITING 1. BUSINESS LETTER I NORWOOD, MASS., 12 March, 1912 MESSRS. FREDERICK A. STOKES CO. 443 Fourth Ave. New York, N.Y. GENTLEMEN: Your letter of 11 March is at hand, and we acknowledge receipt of the MS. of “The Writer’s Desk Book,” together with your detailed instructions. The MS. shall be put into type without delay, and galley proofs shall be sent to the author in accord with your advice. We expect to complete the typesetting within two weeks’ time. Thanking you for the order, we are Yours very truly, THE PLIMPTON PRESS 2. BUSINESS LETTER II (reverse indention) 443 FOURTH AVE., NEW YORK, N. Y. 25 March, 1912 THE PLIMPTON PRESS Norwood, Mass. GENTLEMEN: We beg leave to take up with you the various details of manufacture relating to the various books in your hands, as follows: WRITER’S DESK BOOK: In addition to the proofs which you are now sending to the author, please send two additional sets of galley and page proof to us. MEISSONIER: The sample page which you submit is accepted. We shall require two sets of page-proof only. MAXIMS OF METHUSELAH: Please print an edition of 5000 copies, using paper which you have in stock for us. Yours very truly, FREDERICK A. STOKES CO. {127} 3. INFORMAL OR FRIENDLY LETTER NICE, August 28, 1857 MY DEAR ENTHUSIAST, Again I request your kind offices by the enclosed note, in giving it or forwarding it to my brother. Charles and I have been much gratified in reading aloud — he reading to me while I work — the life of Shakespeare by Thomas Campbell. It is put together in a most pleasant spirit, which all the biographies are not. But a poet is sure to write well on a poet. Everything that Coleridge, for instance, says of our Idol is in charming taste; and also Barry Cornwall’s Memoir and Essay on Shakespeare and his Writings has the same delightful poetic charm. After reading the heap of inappreciative discussions on the subject, it is truly refreshing to go through the dissertations of such authors as these upon our poet of poets. They can best feel his merits, and can therefore most veneratingly and modestly treat the theme of his genius and greatness. With united kindest regards from Charles and myself to you and Mrs. Balmanno, believe me to be Gratefully, _Mary Cowden Clarke_ ROBERT BALMANNO, ESQ. NEW YORK, N. Y. 4. FORMAL SOCIAL NOTES Mr. and Mrs. Charles Winslow request the pleasure of Mr. James Gorham’s company at dinner on Thursday evening, January the twelfth, at half after seven o’clock. 487 Beacon Street January the fourth[25] [25] While this form is commonly used, it is not grammatically correct. One may say George the Fourth, because three Georges have preceded him. Strictly speaking, one should write _The fourth of January_. {128} Mr. James Gorham regrets that an engagement previously made prevents[26] him from accepting the kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Winslow for dinner on Thursday evening, January the twelfth. 289 Commonwealth Avenue January the fifth 5. FORMAL NOTE TO TRADESMAN Mrs. Gorham desires Messrs. Smith & Robinson to send for her examination the electric ironing apparatus advertised in this morning’s “Herald.” 312 Sigourney Street 12 January, 1912 (_A note of this kind should always have the address._) [26] See under _Tense_ on page 112. {129} POSTAL REGULATIONS CLASSES OF MAIL Domestic matter is divided into four classes, governed as follows: _First Class_ embraces letters, postal cards, post cards, all matter wholly or partly in writing or sealed against inspection. Rate, 2 cents for each ounce and fraction. Limit of weight, 4 pounds. _Second Class_ applies to newspapers and periodicals in their entirety bearing the printed statement “Entered at the post-office as second-class matter,” etc., when they are mailed by the public. Parts of publications are third-class matter. Additions may be made on the wrapper or the matter itself; there may be written or printed the name and address of the sender, preceded by the word “from”; the name and address of the person to whom sent; the words “sample copy” or “marked copy,” or both, as the case may be. On the matter itself the sender may place all that is permitted on the wrapper; correct typographical errors in the text; designate by marks, not by words, {130} a word or passage in the text to which it is desired to call attention. Other writing will subject the package to the first-class rate. Rate 1 cent for each 4 ounces or fraction. Full prepayment required. No limit of weight. _Third Class_ includes unsealed books, newspapers and periodicals not admitted to the second class, circulars, miscellaneous printed matter on paper not having the nature of personal correspondence, and proof sheets, corrected proof sheets, and manuscript copy accompanying the same, engravings, lithographs, seeds, scions, cuttings, bulbs, roots, and plants. Also facsimile copies made by a mechanical process such as the printing press, electric pen, mimeograph, hektograph, copygraph, etc., provided that they are mailed at the post-office window in the minimum number of twenty identical copies separately addressed. If mailed elsewhere or in less number, first-class postage is required. A circular may have in writing therein the name of the addressee or sender or date. Corrections in proof sheets include the alteration of the text and insertion of new matter, as well as the correction of typographical and other errors. They include also marginal instructions to the printer necessary to the correction of the matter or its proper appearance in print. Part of an article may be entirely rewritten if that be necessary for {131} correction. Corrections must be upon the margin of or attached to the proof sheets. Manuscript of one article cannot be inclosed with proof or corrected proof sheets of another except at the first-class rate. Written designation of contents, such as “book,” “printed matter,” “photo,” is permissible upon the wrapper of mail matter of the third class. A single card bearing the written name and address of the sender, or an envelope bearing a written or printed name and address of the sender, may be inclosed with a circular, catalogue, or other third-class matter without affecting the classification thereof. Public library books, otherwise mailable at the third-class rate, may bear any printed or written mark which may reasonably be construed as a necessary _inscription_ for the purpose of a permanent library record. Rate 1 cent each 2 ounces or fraction. Limit of weight, 4 pounds, except single books. Postage must be fully prepaid and great care exercised not to add any written words or figures except such as are permissible. _Parcel Post_ includes all (unsealed) matter not embraced in the three classes already enumerated, except seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots, scions, and plants, on which the rate is one-half cent per ounce. Important changes are certain to be made from time to time during the experimental period, so readers are urged to secure the {132} latest information from their own post-office. The basic regulations at present are as follows: SPECIAL STAMPS REQUIRED. Denominations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50 and 75c. $1. WEIGHT LIMIT: Eleven (11) pounds. SIZE LIMIT: 72 inches, length and girth combined. PARCELS MAY BE INSURED up to $50.00 by paying a fee of 10 cents. RATES PER POUND: Depend on distance parcel is to be carried. See Table of Rates on page 162. MARKING: Parcels must bear name and address of sender, preceded by word “From.” MAILING: Parcels exceeding 4 ounces in weight must be mailed at post-office. WRAPPING OF MAIL MATTER All mail matter should be so wrapped as safely to bear transmission without breaking, or injuring mail bags or the contents of mail bags or the persons of those handling them. Second, third, and fourth-class matter must be so wrapped or enveloped that the contents may be examined easily by postal officials. When not so wrapped, or when bearing or containing writing not authorized by law, the matter will be treated as of the first class. FORWARDING MAIL MATTER Matter of the first class may be forwarded until it reaches the addressee. All other classes require prepayment of the original postage before forwarding. WHAT CANNOT BE MAILED All transient second-class matter and all matter of the third or fourth class not wholly {133} prepaid, and letters and other first-class matter not prepaid are full rate — 2 cents. All matter weighing over 4 pounds, except second-class matter, single books, and documents printed and circulated by authority of Congress. Postal, post, or other cards mailed without wrappers and all matter bearing upon the outside cover or wrapper any delineations, epithets, terms, or language of an indecent, lewd, lascivious, obscene, libelous, scurrilous, defamatory or threatening character, or calculated by the terms of manner or style of display, and obviously intended to reflect injuriously upon the character or conduct of another. Post cards bearing particles of glass, metal, mica, sand, tinsel, etc., are unmailable. All matter concerning any lottery, so-called gift concert, or other enterprise of chance, or concerning schemes devised for the purpose of obtaining money or property under false pretenses. CONCEALED MATTER For knowingly concealing or inclosing any matter of a higher class in that of a lower class, and depositing or causing the same to be deposited for conveyance by mail at a less rate than would be charged for both such higher and lower class, the offender will be liable for every such offense to a fine of $10. {134} DOMESTIC RATES The domestic rates apply to the United States, Porto Rico, Guam, Philippine Islands, Shanghai (China), Tutuila, Cuba, Canada,[27] Mexico,[27] Hawaii, Republic of Panama and the Panama Canal Zone. [27] See exceptions which follow. FOREIGN RATES Mail matter addressed to countries in the Universal Postal Union is subject to the following rates: Letters and sealed packages, 5 cents for one ounce or fraction thereof, and 3 cents for each additional ounce or fraction thereof, if prepaid, and double that rate if not prepaid, except Great Britain, and Germany (if sent by steamers sailing for Germany direct), which is 2 cents per ounce. Postal and private mail cards, 2 cents each. Printed matter of every kind, commercial papers, samples of merchandise, 1 cent each 2 ounces or fraction thereof, but at least 5 cents must be paid on each packet of commercial papers and 2 cents on each packet of samples of merchandise. Mail schedules showing the name of steamer, hour of closing of the mail at the General Post-Office, etc., may be found in the corridors of the General Post-Office or any of its stations. {135} Exceptions for Cuba, Mexico, Canada, and Republic of Panama Matter mailed in United States addressed to MEXICO is subject to the same postage rates and conditions as that addressed in the United States, except that articles of miscellaneous merchandise (fourth-class matter) in unsealed packages not sent as bona fide trade samples are required to be sent by “Parcels Post,” and that the following articles are absolutely excluded from the mails: All sealed packages other than letters in the usual form; all packages (including packages of second-class matter which weigh more than 4 pounds 6 ounces), except such as are sent by parcels post; publications which violate any copyright law of Mexico. Samples of merchandise: Packages not in excess of 4 ounces, 2 cents. Packages in excess of 4 ounces, for each 2 ounces or fraction thereof, 1 cent. Limit of weight, 12 ounces. Mail matter in United States addressed to CANADA and CUBA is subject to same postage rates and conditions as addressed for delivery in United States, except that the following articles are absolutely excluded from the mails: All packages closed against inspection and not in usual form of a letter; all packages, except single volumes of printed books, {136} which weigh more than 4 pounds 6 ounces; publications which violate any copyright law of Canada, Cuba, or Republic of Panama. Unsealed packages of “commercial papers” are admitted to the mails dispatched from this country to Mexico and Canada at the same rate and subject to the same conditions as to weight and dimensions as apply to commercial papers in mails dispatched to other countries of Universal Postal Union. FOREIGN PARCELS POST Parcels Post conventions are in effect with the following countries, the rate of postage being 12 cents a pound or fraction: Australia,[28] Austria,[28] Bahamas, Barbadoes,[28] Belgium,[28] Bermuda, Bolivia, British Guiana, British Honduras, Chili, certain places in China; Costa Rica, Denmark.[28] Dutch Guiana — _Parcels cannot be registered_. Ecuador — _Parcels must not exceed $50 in value_. France — _Parcels cannot be registered and must not weigh over 4 pounds 6 ounces or exceed $50 in value_. Germany. Great Britain and Ireland — _Parcels cannot be registered_. Guatemala, Honduras, Hongkong,[28] Hungary,[28] Jamaica, Japan.[28] Mexico — _Limit of size, 2 feet in length, 4 feet in girth_. Netherlands[28] — _Parcels cannot be registered_. Newfoundland, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway,[28] Peru, Salvador, Sweden,[28] Trinidad. {137} Uruguay — _Parcels cannot be registered_. Venezuela, Windward Islands. [28] Parcels not to exceed $80 in value. Parcels Post packages may be mailed only at the main post-office or at branch carrier stations after each package has been examined and is attached to a parcels post declaration. MONEY ORDER FEES Fees for money orders payable in the United States (which includes Hawaii and Porto Rico) and its possessions comprising the Canal Zone (Isthmus of Panama), Guam, the Philippines, and Tutuila, Samoa; also for orders payable in Bahamas, Bermuda, British Guiana, British Honduras, Canada, Cuba, Newfoundland, at the United States postal agency at Shanghai (China), and in certain islands in the West Indies: Not exceeding $2.50 3c Over $2.50 to $5 5c Over $5 to $10 8c Over $10 to $20 10c Over $20 to $30 12c Over $30 to $40 15c Over $40 to $50 18c Over $50 to $60 20c Over $60 to $75 25c Over $75 to $100 30c Fees for International Money Orders When payable in Apia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Chili, Costa Rica, Denmark, Egypt, Germany, Hongkong, Japan, Liberia, Luxemburg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Orange River Colony, Peru, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and Transvaal: {138} Not exceeding $10 8c Over $10 to $20 10c Over $20 to $30 15c Over $30 to $40 20c Over $40 to $50 25c Over $50 to $60 30c Over $60 to $70 35c Over $70 to $80 40c Over $80 to $90 45c Over $90 to $100 50c When payable in Cape Colony, France, Great Britain, Greece, Republic of Honduras, Italy, New South Wales, Queensland, Russia, Salvador, South Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria: Not exceeding $10 10c Over $10 to $20 20c Over $20 to $30 30c Over $30 to $40 40c Over $40 to $50 50c Over $50 to $60 60c Over $60 to $70 70c Over $70 to $80 80c Over $80 to $90 90c Over $90 to $100 $1 REGISTERED MAIL _Domestic_ Any article of the first, second, third, or fourth class mail matter may be registered at any post-office in the United States. The fee on registered matter, domestic or foreign, is 10 cents for each letter or parcel, to be affixed in stamps, in addition to the postage. Full prepayment of postage and fee is required. Two or more letters or parcels addressed to, or intended for, the same person cannot be tied or otherwise fastened together and registered as one. A return receipt signed by the recipient and showing delivery is returned to the sender of each domestic registered letter or parcel if requested at the time of mailing. {139} If it is desired that registered matter be delivered to the addressee only, it should be endorsed “To be delivered to the addressee only.” The postal authorities give an indemnity for domestic first-class registered mail lost in transit up to $50. _Foreign_ 1. Any article of mail matter, except parcels post packages for France, The Netherlands, Uruguay, Great Britain, Barbadoes, Dutch Guiana, may be registered, provided that when presented for registration the postage thereon be fully prepaid by postage stamps affixed, also the registration fee, which is uniformly 10 cents. 2. Name and address of sender in full must be indorsed on or written across the end of the letter or article before it can be registered. 3. The senders of registered articles may obtain assurance of their receipt by persons addressed by indorsing them with the words, “Return receipt requested.” SPECIAL DELIVERY SYSTEM A special 10 cent stamp, when attached to a letter or package (in addition to the lawful postage), will entitle such to immediate delivery at destination within the carrier limit of a free delivery office between the hours of 7 A.M. and 11 P.M., and from 7 A.M. to {140} 7 P.M. at all other offices, or until after the arrival of the last mail at night, provided that be not later than 9 P.M. Special delivery mail must be delivered on Sunday, as well as on other days, if post-office is open on Sundays. If special delivery matter fails of delivery because there is no person at the place of address to receive it, the matter is returned to the post-office and delivered in the ordinary mail. Ten cents worth of ordinary stamps with “special delivery” written on envelope serves the same purpose. Short-paid second, third, and fourth class matter, to which is attached a special delivery stamp, cannot be forwarded. POSTAL DISTANCES AND TIME FROM NEW YORK CITY SHORTEST ROUTES AND TIME IN TRANSIT BY FASTEST TRAINS _Subject to alterations occasioned by changes in time tables and connections_ -------------------+------+--------- Cities in U. S. | Mls. | Hrs. -------------------+------+--------- Albany, N. Y. | 142 | 3 1/2 Atlanta, Ga. | 882 | 24 1/4 Baltimore, Md. | 138 | 6 Bismarck, N. Dak. | 1738 | 60 1/2 Boise, Idaho | 2736 | 92 1/2 Boston, Mass. | 217 | 6 Buffalo, N. Y. | 410 | 9 1/2 Cape May, N. J. | 172 | 5 Carson City, Nev. | 3036 | 109 1/4 Charleston, S. C. | 804 | 21 1/4 Chattanooga, Ten. | 853 | 32 Cheyenne, Wyo. | 1899 | 54 Chicago, Ill. | 900 | 23 Cincinnati, O. | 744 | 23 Cleveland, O. | 568 | 19 1/2 Columbus, O. | 624 | 20 Concord, N. H. | 292 | 9 1/2 Deadwood, S. Dak. | 1957 | 65 1/2 Denver, Col. | 1930 | 61 1/2 Des Moines, Ia. | 1257 | 37 1/2 Detroit, Mich. | 743 | 21 Galveston, Tex. | 1789 | 56 1/2 Harrisburg, Pa. | 182 | 6 Hartford, Ct. | 112 | 4 Helena, Mont. | 2423 | 89 Hot Springs, Ark. | 1367 | 55 Indianapolis, Ind. | 808 | 23 Jacksonville, Fla. | 1077 | 30 {141} Kansas City, Mo. | 1302 | 38 1/4 Louisville, Ky. | 854 | 30 Memphis, Tenn. | 1163 | 40 Milwaukee, Wis. | 985 | 29 1/4 Montgomery, Ala. | 1057 | 26 Montpelier, Vt. | 327 | 10 1/4 New Orleans, La. | 1344 | 32 Omaha, Neb. | 1383 | 43 Philadelphia, Pa. | 90 | 3 Pittsburgh, Pa. | 431 | 13 Portland, Me. | 325 | 12 Portland, Ore. | 3181 | 141 1/2 Prescott, Ariz. | 2724 | 94 Providence, R. I. | 189 | 5 Richmond, Va. | 344 | 11 1/4 St. Louis, Mo. | 1048 | 29 St. Paul, Minn. | 1300 | 37 Salt Lake City, U. | 2452 | 71 1/2 San Francisco, Cal.| 3250 | 105 Santa Fe, N. Mex. | 2173 | 82 Savannah, Ga. | 905 | 26 1/4 Tacoma, Wash. | 3209 | 102 Topeka, Kan. | 1370 | 48 Trenton, N. J. | 57 | 2 Vicksburgh, Miss. | 1288 | 50 Vinita, Ind. Ter. | 1412 | 42 Washington, D. C. | 228 | 6 Wheeling, W. Va. | 496 | 14 1/4 Wilmington, Del. | 117 | 5 Wilmington, N. C. | 593 | 20 -------------------+------+--------- FOREIGN CITIES FROM NEW YORK CITY ----------------------+-------+----- By Postal Route to | Mls. | D’s ----------------------+-------+----- Adelaide, v. Frisco | 12845 | 34 Alexandria, v. Lon. | 6150 | 13 Amsterdam, v. Lon. | 3985 | 9 Antwerp, v. London | 4000 | 9 Athens, v. Lon. | 5655 | 12 Bahia, Brazil | 5870 | 21 Bangkok, S. v. Frisco | 12990 | 43 Batavia, J. v. Lon. | 12800 | 34 Berlin | 4385 | 9 Bombay, v. London | 9765 | 24 Bremen | 4235 | 8 Buenos Ayres | 8045 | 29 Calcutta, v. London | 11120 | 26 Cape Town, v. Lon. | 11245 | 27 Const’ople, v. Lon. | 5810 | 11 Florence, v. London | 4800 | 10 Glasgow | 3370 | 10 Greytown, v. N. O. | 2815 | 7 Halifax, N. S. | 645 | 2 Hamburg, direct | 4820 | 9 Havana | 1366 | 3 Hongkong, v. Fris. | 10590 | 25 Honolulu, v. Frisco | 5645 | 13 Liverpool | 3540 | 8 London | 3740 | 8 Madrid, v. London | 4925 | 9 Melbourne, v. Fris. | 12265 | 26 Mexico City (R.R.) | 3750 | 5 Panama | 2355 | 6 Paris | 4020 | 8 Rio de Janeiro | 6204 | 23 Rome, v. London | 5030 | 9 Rotterdam, v. Lon. | 3935 | 9 St. Ptrsburg, v. Lon. | 5370 | 10 Shanghai, v. Fris. | 9920 | 25 Stockholm, v. Lon. | 4975 | 10 Sydney, v. Frisco | 11570 | 21 Valparaiso, v. Pan. | 4808 | 21 Vienna | 4740 | 10 Yokohama, v. Fris. | 7348 | 20 ----------------------+-------+----- {142} APPENDIX STANDARD TIME By Standard Time is meant that the hour of each 15° of longitude becomes the local mean time for the zone or belt extending 7 1/2° on each side of the central meridian; though in practise the zone has to be adapted to local circumstances, and so cannot conform to the exact line or meridian, but is arranged to suit boundaries of States or Provinces as may be most convenient. By way of illustration, it may be noted that in the Province of Ontario, Canada, by Act of the Legislature, the hour of 75° W. is Standard Time for the Province as far as 87° W., and that the S.W. point, 83° W., extends westerly beyond the eastern part of the State of Michigan, where the time of 90° W. is used; so at Windsor, Ontario, it is noon while in Michigan — more to the east — it is 11 A.M. The Standard Time as used in the chief cities of Canada and the United States may be noted: at Quebec, Montreal, and Toronto, at Boston, New York, and Washington, the time of 75° W., five hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; at Winnipeg in Manitoba, and at Detroit, Chicago, and New Orleans, the time of 90°, {143} six hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; at Regina and Denver it is the time of 105°, seven hours earlier than Greenwich; and in British Columbia and at San Francisco the time of 120° W., eight hours earlier than Greenwich, is used; and when 180° is reached another day begins in Eastern Siberia, at the Fiji Islands, and a little to the east of New Zealand. The same rule applies to places east of Greenwich, where, of course, noon is earlier than at Greenwich according to the longitude. Spain adopted Standard — that is, Greenwich — Time early in the century. When noon at Greenwich it is 2 P.M. in Egypt and South Africa; it is 5:30 P.M. in India, 82 1/2° E.; in Japan and Corea, 135° E., it is 9 P.M.; and in Eastern Australia, 150° E., it is 10 P.M. The question is often asked, “Where does a day begin?” — that is, any special day, New Year’s Day or Easter Day — and the answer is that for all peoples, nations, and languages, using maps with longitude East and West from Greenwich, each day begins at the meridian of 180°, slightly east of New Zealand in the South, and intersecting Eastern Siberia in the North, and so the last day of the nineteenth century and the first day of the twentieth were on the Earth together, not running concurrently or side by side, north and south of the Equator, as has been {144} supposed, erroneously, but the latter following the former from 180° westerly to Greenwich, and on again to 180°, where it gave place to January 2. Twelve O’clock Noon Greenwich Mean Time AS COMPARED WITH THE CLOCK IN THE FOLLOWING PLACES H. M. Adelaide 9 14 P.M. Auckland (N.Z.) 11 39 P.M. Berlin 0 54 P.M. Berne 0 30 P.M. Bombay 4 51 P.M. Boston, U.S. 7 16 A.M. Brisbane, Qnsland 10 12 P.M. Brussels 0 17 P.M. Calcutta 5 53 P.M. Cape of Good Hope 1 14 P.M. Chicago 6 10 A.M. Constantinople 1 56 P.M. Dublin 11 35 A.M. Edinburgh 11 47 A.M. Florence 0 45 P.M. Glasgow 11 43 A.M. Hobart, Tasmania 9 49 P.M. Jerusalem 2 21 P.M. Lisbon 11 23 A.M. Madras 5 21 P.M. Madrid 11 45 A.M. Malta 0 58 P.M. Melbourne, Aus. 9 40 P.M. Moscow 2 30 P.M. Newfndland, S. Jns. 8 29 A.M. New York 7 4 A.M. Paris 0 9 P.M. Pekin 7 46 P.M. Penzance 11 37 A.M. Perth, W. Aus. 7 43 P.M. Philadelphia 6 59 A.M. Port Moresby 10 4 P.M. Prague 0 58 P.M. Quebec 7 15 A.M. Rome 0 50 P.M. Rotterdam 0 18 P.M. San Francisco, Port 3 52 A.M. St. Petersburg 2 1 P.M. Stockholm 1 12 P.M. Suez 2 10 P.M. Sydney 10 5 P.M. Toronto 6 42 A.M. Vancouver 3 38 A.M. Vienna 1 5 P.M. {145} FOREIGN COINS WITH THEIR VALUE IN UNITED STATES MONEY AS PROCLAIMED BY THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY 1 OCTOBER, 1910 A = Standard B = Monetary Unit C = Val. in terms of U.S. gold dollar ------------------+------+---------+----------+------------------------------ Country | A | B | C | Coins ------------------+------+---------+----------+------------------------------ Argentine Republic|Gold |Peso |$0.965 | Gold — argentine ($4.824) and | | | | 1/2 argentine. Silver — peso | | | | and divisions Austria-Hungary |Gold |Crown | .203 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns. | | | | Silver — 1 and 5 crowns Belgium |Gold |Franc | .193 | Gold — 10 and 20 francs. | | | | Silver — 5 francs Bolivia |Silver|Boliviano| .389 | Silver boliviano and divisions Brazil |Gold |Milreis | .546 | Gold — 5, 10, 20 milreis. | | | | Silver — 1/2, 1, 2 milreis British Honduras |Gold |Dollar | 1.000 | Canada | | | | (except Nfd.) |Gold |Dollar | 1.000 | | | | | Cent. Amer. | | | | States—   | | | | Costa Rica |Gold |Colon | .465 | Gold — 2, 5, 10, and 20 colons | | | | ($9.307). Silver — 5, 10, 25, | | | | and 50 centimos Guatemala, | | | | Honduras, | | | | Nicaragua, & | | | | Salvador |Silver|Peso | .391 | Silver — peso and divisions Chili |Gold |Peso | .365 | Gold — escudo ($1.825), | | | | doubloon($3.650), and condor | | | | ($7.300). | | | | Silver — peso and divisions | |[29]Tael:| | | | Canton | .612 | China |Silver| Haikwan | .652 | | | Hongkong| .421 | | | | | {146} | | | | | | | | China |Silver|Dollar: | | | | British|$0.421 | | | Mexican| .424 | Colombia | Gold |Dollar | 1.000 | Gold — condor ($9.647); | | | | d’ble-condor. Silver — peso Denmark | Gold |Crown | .268 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns Ecuador | Gold |Sucre | .487 | Gold — 10 sucres ($4.8665). | | | | Silver — sucre and div. Egypt | Gold |Pound | 4.943 | Gold — pound (100 piasters), | | (100 pi-| | 5, 10, 20, 50 piasters | | asters) | | Silver — 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 | | | | piasters Finland | Gold |Mark | .193 | Gold — 20 marks ($3.859), 10 | | | | marks ($1.93) France | Gold |Franc | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 | | | | francs. Silver — 5 francs German Empire | Gold |Mark | .238 | Gold — 5, 10, and 20 marks Great Britain | Gold |Pound |4.866 1/2 | Gold — sovereign (pound | | Sterling| | sterling), 1/2 sovereign Greece | Gold |Drachma | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 | | | | drachmas. Sil. — 5 drachmas Haiti | Gold |Gourde | .965 | Gold — 1, 2, 5, 10 gourdes. | | | | Silver — gourde and div. India (British) | Gold |Pound |4.866 1/2 | Gold — sovereign (pound | | Sterl- | | sterling). Silver — rupee | | ing[30] | | and divisions Italy | Gold |Lira | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 | | | | lire. Silver — 5 lire Japan | Gold |Yen | .498 | Gold — 5, 10, and 20 yen. | | | | Silver — 10, 20, and 50 yen Liberia | Gold |Dollar |1.000 | Mexico | Gold |Peso[31] | .498 | Gold — 5, 10 pesos. Silver — | | | | dollar (or peso) and div. Netherlands | Gold |Florin | .402 | Gold — 10 florins. Silver — | | | | 2 1/2. 1 florin and | | | | divisions Newfoundland | Gold |Dollar |1.014 | Gold — 2 dollars ($2.028) | | | | {147} | | | | | | | | Norway | Gold |Crown | .268 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns Panama | Gold |Balboa |1.000 | Gold — 1, 2 1/2, 5, 10, 20 | | | | balboas. Silver — peso and | | | | div. Persia |Silver|Kran | .072 | Gold — 1/2, 1 and 2 tomans | | | | ($3.409). Silver — 1/4, 1/2, | | | | 1, 2, and 5 krans Peru | Gold |Libra |4.866 1/2 | Gold — 1/2 and 1 libra. | | | | Silver — sol and divisions Philippine Islands| Gold |Peso | .500 | Silver peso — 10, 20 and 50 | | | | centavos Portugal | Gold |Milreis |1.080 | Gold — 1, 2, 5 and 10 milreis Russia | Gold |Ruble | .515 | Gold — 5, 7 1/2, 10, and 15 | | | | rubles. Silver — 5, 10, 15, | | | | 20, 25, 50, and 100 copeks Spain | Gold |Peseta | .193 | Gold — 25 pesetas. Silver — 5 | | | | pesetas Straits | Gold |Pound |4.866 1/2 | Gold — sovereign (pound Settlements | | Sterl- | | sterling). Sil. — dol. and | | ing[32] | | div. Sweden | Gold |Crown | .268 | Gold — 10 and 20 crowns Switzerland | Gold |Franc | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 | | | | francs. Silver — 5 francs Turkey | Gold |Piaster | .044 | Gold — 25, 50, 100, 250, and | | | | 500 piasters Uruguay | Gold |Peso |1.034 | Gold — peso. Silver — peso and | | | | divisions Venezuela | Gold |Bolivar | .193 | Gold — 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 | | | | bolivars. Silver — 5 | | | | bolivars ------------------+------+---------+----------+------------------------------- [29] Amoy, .641; Cheefoo, .613; Chin Kiang, .626; Fuchau, .593; Hankau, .599; Kiaochu, .621; Nanking, .634; Newchang, .601; Ningpo, .616; Peking, .625; Shanghai, .585; Swatow, .592; Takau, .645; Tientsin, .621. [30] The sovereign is the standard coin of India, but the rupee ($0.3244 1/2) is the current coin, valued at 15 to the sovereign. [31] Seventy-five centigrams fine gold. [32] The current coin of the Straits Settlements is the silver dollar issue on government account and which has been given a tentative value of $0.567758 1/3. NOTE. — The coins of silver-standard countries are valued by their pure silver contents at the average market price of silver for the three months preceding the date of this table. (Courtesy _The World Almanac_.) {148} COMPARATIVE THERMOMETERS Réaumur Centigrade Fahrenheit 80 100 212 Water boils at sea-level 76 95 203 72 90 194 68 85 185 63.1 78.9 174 Alcohol boils 60 75 167 56 70 158 52 65 149 White of egg coagulates 48 60 140 44 55 131 42.2 52.8 127 40 50 122 36 45 113 Tallow melts 33.8 42.2 108 32 40 104 29.3 36.7 98 Blood heat 28 35 95 25.8 32.2 90 24 30 86 21.3 26.7 80 20 25 77 16 20 68 Temperate 12.4 15.3 60 10.2 12.8 55 8 10 50 5.8 7.2 45 4 5 41 1.3 1.7 35 0 0 32 Water freezes 0.9 - 1.1 30 4 - 9 23 5.3 - 6.7 20 8 -10 14 9.8 -12.2 10 12 -15 5 14.2 -17.8 0 Zero Fahr. {149} 16 -20 - 4 20 -25 -13 24 -30 -22 28 -35 -31 32 -40 -40 Mercury freezes _To change from centigrade to Fahrenheit multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. To change from Réaumur to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide by 4, and add 32._ (Courtesy _The World Almanac_) WEIGHTS AND MEASURES THE METRIC SYSTEM Multiples which are used equally with all the principal units M (myria = 10000) K (kilo = 1000) H (hekto = 100) D (deka = 10) (NOTE. These are Greek numerals) Divisions which are used equally with all the principle units d (deci = .1) c (centi = .01) m (milli = .001) (NOTE. These are Latin numerals) +-------------+--------------------------+-----------------------------+ | Kinds of | Principal Units | Definitions | | Quantities | | | | Measured | | | +-------------+--------------------------+-----------------------------+ Length m (meter) Area sq. m (square meter) a (Ar) 1 sq. Dm. Volume cu m (cubic meter) s (ster) 1 cu. m. l (liter) 1 cu. d m Weight g (gram) Weight of 1 cu. cm. of pure water at 4° centigrade NOTE. 1000 kg. is called t. (a metric ton.) {150} LINEAR MEASURE 12 in. = 1 foot 3 ft. = 1 yd. 5 1/2 yds. = 1 rod 320 rds. = 1 mile 5280 ft. = 1 mile 3 miles = 1 league The hand (4 in.) is used to measure the height of horses. The nautical mile is 6086.44 ft. 1 knot is 1.1528 statute miles. 1 degree is 67.168 statute miles. SQUARE MEASURE 144 sq. in. = 1 sq. ft. 9 sq. ft. = 1 sq. yd. 30 1/4 sq. yds. = 1 sq. rod 160 sq. rods = 1 acre 640 acres = 1 sq. mile The side of a square having an area of an acre is approximately 208 3/4 feet. DRY MEASURE 2 pints = 1 quart 8 quarts = 1 peck 4 pecks = 1 bushel LIQUID MEASURE 4 gills = 1 pt. 2 pts. = 1 qt. 4 qts. = 1 gall. 31 1/2 gall. = 1 barrel 2 barrels = 1 hogshead APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT 20 grains = 1 scruple 3 scruples = 1 dram 8 drams = 1 ounce 12 ounces = 1 pound AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 16 drams = 1 ounce 16 ounces = 1 pound 100 pounds = 1 hundredweight 20 hundredweights = 1 ton Long ton = 2240 pounds, used mostly in Great Britain. TROY WEIGHT 24 grains = 1 pennyweight 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce 12 ounces = 1 pound 1 carat in diamond, measure = 3.2 Troy grains. {151} PAPER MEASURE 24 sheets = 1 quire 20 quires = 1 ream 2 reams = 1 bundle 5 bundles = 1 bale TIME MEASURE 60 seconds = 1 minute 60 minutes = 1 hour 24 hours = 1 day 7 days = 1 week 28, 29, 30, or 31 days = 1 calendar month (30 days = 1 month in computing interest) 365 days = 1 year 366 days = 1 leap year CIRCULAR MEASURE 60 seconds = 1 minute 60 minutes = 1 degree 30 degrees = 1 sign 90 degrees = 1 quadrant 4 quadrants = 12 signs, or 360 degrees = 1 circle CLOTH MEASURE 2 1/4 inches = 1 nail 4 nails = 1 quarter 4 quarters = 1 yard MARINERS’ MEASURE 6 feet = 1 fathom 120 fathoms = 1 cab. le’th. 7 1/2 cable lengths = 1 mile 5280 feet = 1 stat. mile 6085 feet = 1 naut. mile MISCELLANEOUS 3 inches = 1 palm 4 inches = 1 hand 6 inches = 1 span 18 inches = 1 cubit 21.8 in. = 1 Bible cubit 2 1/2 ft. = 1 military pace SURVEYORS’ MEASURE 7.92 inches = 1 link 25 links = 1 rod 4 rods = 1 chain 10 square chains or 160 square rods = 1 acre 640 acres = 1 sq. mile 36 sq. miles (6 miles sq.) = 1 township {152} CUBIC MEASURE 1728 cubic in. = 1 cub. ft. 27 cubic ft. = 1 cubic yd. 128 c. ft. = 1 cord (wood) 40 cub. ft. = 1 ton (shpg.) 2150.42 cubic inches = 1 standard bushel 268.8 cubic inches = 1 standard gallon 1 cubic foot = about four-fifths of a bushel METRIC EQUIVALENTS _Linear Measure_ 1 centimeter = 0.3937 in. 1 in. = 2.54 centimeters 1 decimeter = 3.937 in. = 0.328 feet 1 ft. = 3.048 decimeters 1 meter = 39.37 in. = 1.0936 yards 1 yard = 0.9144 meter 1 dekameter = 1.9884 rods 1 rod = 0.5029 dekameter 1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile 1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers _Square Measure_ 1 sq. centimeter = 0.1550 sq. in. 1 sq. inch = 6452 square centimeters 1 sq. decimeter = 0.1076 sq. ft. 1 sq. foot = 9.2903 square decimeters 1 sq. meter = 1.196 sq. yd. 1 sq. yd. = 0.8361 sq. m’r. 1 are = 3.954 sq. rd. 1 sq. rd. = 0.2529 are 1 hektar = 2.47 acres 1 acre = 0.4047 hektar 1 sq. kilometer = 0.386 sq. m. 1 sq. m. = 2.59 sq. kilometers _Measure of Volume_ 1 cu. centimeter = 0.061 cu. in. 1 cu. in. = 16.39 cu. centimeters 1 cu. decimeter = 0.0353 cu. ft. 1 cu. ft. = 28.317 cu. decimeters 1 cu. mr. = 1.308 cu. yd. 1 cu. yd. = 0.7646 cu. mr. 1 cu. mr. = 0.2759 cd. 1 stere = 1.308 cu. yd. 1 cord = 3.624 steres 1 stere = 0.2759 cd. 1 liter = 0.908 qt. dry 1 qt. dry = 1.101 liters 1 liter = 1.0567 qt. liq. 1 qt. liq. = 0.9463 liter 1 dekaliter = 2.6417 gal. 1 gal. = 0.3785 dekaliter 1 dekaliter = .135 pks. 1 peck = 0.881 dekaliter 1 hektoliter = 2.8375 bush. 1 bus. = 0.3524 hektoliter {153} _Weights_ 1 gram. = 0.03527 ounce 1 ounce = 28.85 grams. 1 kilogram = 2.2046 lbs. 1 lb. = 0.4536 kilogram 1 metric ton = 1.1023 English ton 1 English ton = 0.9072 metric ton British Weights and Measures The British Weights and Measures Act of 1878, which superseded all previous laws upon the subject, enacts the measures which may legally be used in the United Kingdom. These are based upon the Standard Yard and the Standard Pound. Further Acts of Parliament were passed in 1889 and 1904 dealing with the question of verification of weights and measures, and regulations were issued by the Board of Trade in 1907 respecting the inspection and stamping of weights and measures. The Yard and the Pound are the only two independent standards for weights and measures, as the Gallon, the standard of capacity, both for dry and liquid measure, is not independent, but is based upon the Pound. The Gallon is defined in the Act of 1878 as the volume of ten Imperial Standard Pounds weight of distilled water weighed in air against brass weights, with the water and air at the temperature of 62° Fahrenheit and the barometer at 30 inches. The multiples and subdivisions of the Standard Yard, Pound, and Gallon, as laid {154} down in the Act of 1878, are as follows; the legal abbreviations are given in brackets: 1. MEASURES OF LENGTH 12 inches (_in._) = 1 foot (_ft._) 3 feet = 1 YARD (_yd._) 5 1/2 yards = 1 rod, pole, or perch 4 poles = 1 chain or 100 links 10 chains = 1 furlong 8 furlongs = 1 mile 2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT 7000 grains (_gr._) = 1 POUND (_lb._) Also 16 drams (_dr._) = 1 ounce (_oz._) 16 ounces = 1 POUND (_lb._) 14 pounds = 1 stone 8 stone = 1 hundredweight (_cwt._) 20 hundredweights = 1 ton 3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY 4 gills = 1 pint 2 pints = 1 quart 4 quarts = 1 GALLON 2 gallons = 1 peck 4 pecks = 1 bushel 8 bushels = 1 quarter 36 bushels = 1 chaldron 4. MEASURES OF LAND 40 square perches = 1 rood 4 roods = 1 acre For certain special purposes, the following are also authorized by the Act of 1878 or by Order in Council under the Act: 1. For weighing gold and silver and precious stones: {155} The Troy ounce, equal in weight to 480 grains. In dealing with quantities less than an ounce, the ounce is divided decimally, _not_ into grains. Larger quantities than an ounce are stated in ounces. There is _no_ Troy pound. 2. For the use of apothecaries and for selling drugs retail: (_a_) MEASURES OF WEIGHT 20 grains = 1 scruple (℈) 3 scruples = 1 drachm (ʒ) 8 drachms = 1 Apothecaries’ ounce (_oz. Apoth._) (_b_) MEASURES OF CAPACITY 60 minims (_min._) = 1 fluid drachm (_fl. dr._) 8 fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce (_fl. oz._) Of the Apothecaries’ measure of weight, the grain is the same as the Imperial grain; and the Apothecaries’ ounce contains 480 grains, like the Troy ounce. But, of the measures of capacity, the Apothecaries’ _drachm_ is not the same as the Imperial _dram_, and the two words are spelt differently. A fluid ounce of distilled water at a temperature of 62° Fahrenheit is equal in weight to the Imperial ounce (437.5 grains), and the _fluid drachm_ (54.6875 grains) is equal in weight to two Imperial _drams_. ELECTRICAL MEASURES It is customary to express electrical measures in terms of the centimeter, the gramme, and the second, and the value of the units {156} has been fixed by international agreement. The principal units, as described in the Order in Council of January 10, 1910, are as follows: The OHM, the unit of resistance, is the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury, at the temperature of melting ice, 14.4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area, and of a length of 106.3 centimeters. The AMPERE, the unit of current, is the unvarying electric current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a gramme per second. The VOLT, the unit of pressure, is the pressure which, when steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a current of one ampere. The WATT, the unit of power, is 1/746 of one horse-power, the horse-power being 33,000 lb. raised one foot in one minute. The Board of Trade unit is 1000 Watt-hours. In carbon lamps of 16-candle power (nominal) about four watts are required per candle power to give good economical results for domestic purposes. One Board of Trade unit will keep a 16-candle carbon lamp alight for about 16 hours; metallic filament lamps require considerably less. {157} MEASURES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES _Builders’ Measurements_ Stock or kiln bricks 8 3/4 inches × 4 1/4 × 2 3/4 Welsh fire-bricks 9 inches × 4 1/2 × 2 3/4 Paving bricks 9 inches × 4 1/2 × 1 3/4 Square tiles 9 3/4 inches × 9 3/4 × 1 Square tiles 6 inches × 6 × 1 Dutch clinker bricks 9 1/4 inches × 3 × 1 1/2 A Rod of Brickwork 16 1/2 feet × 16 1/2 feet × 1 1/2 brick thick = 306 cubic feet, or 11 1/3 cubic yards, and contains about 4500 bricks with about 75 cubic feet of mortar. Ordinary bricks weigh about 7 lb. each; a load of 500 weighs about 1 ton 11 cwt. 1 qr. A Piece of Wall Paper is 12 yd. long × 21 in. wide (English), and 9 yd. × 18 in. (French). _Timber and Wood_ 40 cubic feet rough, 50 cubic feet squared = 1 load 50 cubic feet of planks = 1 load 100 superficial feet = 1 square of flooring 120 Deals = 100 Width of Battens, 7 inches; Deals, 9 inches; Planks are 2 to 4 inches thick, and 10 or 11 inches wide. A Cord of Wood is 2 1/2 tons, or 128 cubic feet. _Corn_ Wheat and other cereals are commonly sold by weight, the bushel being thus reckoned: Wheat, English, 60 lb. Foreign, 62 lb. Barley, English, 50 lb. French, 52 1/2 lb. Mediterranean, 50 lb. {158} Oats, English, 39 lb. Foreign, 38 and 40 lb. Rye and Maize, 60 lb. Buckwheat, 52 lb. _Hay and Straw_ Truss of Straw, 36 lb. Truss of Old Hay, 56 lb. Truss of New Hay (to September 1), 60 lb. Load, 36 Trusses — Straw, 11 cwt. 2 qr. 8 lb.; Old Hay, 18 cwt.; New Hay, 19 cwt. 1 qr. 4 lb. _Yard Measures_ _Cotton and Spun Silk Count._ — Thread = 1 1/2 yards; Lea, or Skein, _skn._ = 120 yards; Hank, _hk_ = 7 Skeins, or Leas = 840 yards; Spindle, _spdl._ = 18 Hanks; counts = the number of Hanks in 1 lb.; Bundle Hanks, either of 5 lb. or 10 lb.; Reels of Cotton vary from 30 to 1760 yards; they must be marked correctly. Bundles of Cotton are chiefly made up for export. _Worsted Count._ — Wrap, 80 yards; Hank = 560 yards = 7 Wraps. Counts or Numbers are the number of hanks in a lb. _Linen Count._ — The Hank or Lea is 300 yards, and the number of these in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn. A Spindle is 48 hanks; a Bundle is 200 hanks. _West of England Count._ — The Hank is 320 yards, and the number of hanks in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn. {159} _Size of Barrel_ Gals. Firkin or Quarter Barrel 9 Anker (10 gallons) 10 Kilderkin, Rundlet, or 1/2 Barrel 18 Barrel 36 Tierce (42 gallons) 42 Hogshead of Ale (1 1/2 barrels) 54 Puncheon 72 Butt of Ale 108 In the British Dependencies The Imperial weights and measures are the legal standards in the British Dominions and in India. In some Colonies the Metric system may also be used. In certain Colonies and in India, the old local measures are still employed to a considerable extent. Among these are the following: INDIAN WEIGHTS (_Bengal_) Tola, unit of postage = 180 grains Chittak = 5 Tolas; Seer (16 Chittaks) = 2 9/35 lb. Imperial or Indian Maund = 82 2/7 lb. = 40 seer _Madras_ Viss = 3.09 lbs., Maund = 25 lb., Candy = 500 lb. SOUTH AFRICAN LAND MEASURES Cape Morgen = 2.11654 English Acres Cape Feet = 1.033 English Feet Cape Rood = 12.396 English Feet {160} European Countries The metric system of weights and measures has been adopted in the following countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Rumania, Servia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. In _Russia_ the standard of length is the Sachine, which is equal to seven British feet; the standard of weight is the Pound, equal to nine-tenths of the British pound. The other measures are: 1. MEASURES OF LENGTH 16 vershok = 1 archine 3 archine = 1 sachine 500 sachine = 1 verst 2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT 3 zolotnik = 1 loth 32 loth = 1 pound 40 pounds = 1 pood 10 poods = 1 berkovatz In _Turkey_ the weights and measures differ considerably in different parts of the Empire, but the following are those used at Constantinople and the neighborhood: 1. MEASURES OF LENGTH 2 jeras = 1 rup 8 rups = 1 pek = 26.77 British inches 2. MEASURES OF WEIGHT 16 kirats = 1 dram 400 drams = 1 oke = 2.828 British pounds 44 okes = 1 kantar {161} The usual measure of capacity in Turkey is the Kileh, which is slightly larger than the British bushel. TIME AND WATCH ON BOARD SHIP «Time.» — Time is kept by means of “Bells,” although there is but one bell on the ship; and to strike the clapper properly against the bell requires some skill. First, two strokes of the clapper at the interval of a second, then an interval of two seconds; then two more strokes with a second’s interval apart, then a rest of two seconds, thus: Bell, one second; B., two secs.; B. s.; B. ss.; B. s.; B. ss.; B. «Watch.» — For purposes of discipline, and to divide the work fairly, the crew is mustered in two divisions: the Starboard (right side, looking forward) and the Port (left). The day commences at noon, and is thus divided: Afternoon Watch noon to 4 P.M. First Dog Watch 4 P.M. to 6 P.M. Second Dog Watch 6 P.M. to 8 P.M. First Watch 8 P.M. to midnight Middle Watch 12 A.M. to 4 A.M. Morning Watch 4 A.M. to 8 A.M. Forenoon Watch 8 A.M. to noon This makes seven _Watches_, which enables the crew to keep them alternately, as the _Watch_ which is on duty in the forenoon one {162} day has the afternoon the next day, and the men who have only four hours’ rest one night have eight hours the next. This is the reason for having _Dog Watches_, which are made by dividing the hours between 4 P.M. and 8 P.M. into two _Watches_. PARCEL POST — TABLE OF RATES --------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------ WEIGHT | Local | 1st zone| 2d zone | 3d zone | 4th zone OF | Rate | up to 50| 50 to 150| 150 to 300| 300 to 600 PARCEL | | miles | miles | miles | miles --------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------ 1 lb. | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.08 2 lbs. | 0.06 | .08 | .10 | .12 | .14 3 lbs. | 0.07 | .11 | .14 | .17 | .20 4 lbs. | .08 | .14 | .18 | .22 | .26 5 lbs. | .09 | .17 | .22 | .27 | .32 6 lbs. | .10 | .20 | .26 | .32 | .38 7 lbs. | .11 | .23 | .30 | .37 | .44 8 lbs. | .12 | .26 | .34 | .42 | .50 9 lbs. | .13 | .29 | .38 | .47 | .56 10 lbs. | .14 | .32 | .42 | .52 | .62 11 lbs. | .15 | .35 | .46 | .57 | .68 --------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------ --------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------ WEIGHT | 5th zone | 6th zone | 7th zone | 8th zone OF | 600 to 1000| 1000 to 1400| 1400 to 1800| all over PARCEL | miles | miles | miles | 1800 miles --------+-------+---------+----------+-----------+------------ 1 lb. | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.12 2 lbs. | .16 | .19 | .21 | .24 3 lbs. | .23 | .28 | .31 | .36 4 lbs. | .30 | .37 | .41 | .48 5 lbs. | .37 | .46 | .51 | .60 6 lbs. | .44 | .55 | .61 | .72 7 lbs. | .51 | .64 | .71 | .84 8 lbs. | .58 | .73 | .81 | .96 9 lbs. | .65 | .82 | .91 | 1.08 10 lbs. | .72 | .91 | 1.01 | 1.20 11 lbs. | .79 | 1.00 | 1.11 | 1.32 --------+------------+-------------+-------------+------------ {163} INDEX “A” and “an,” spacing of, 60. “a” (negative prefix), compounds of, 50. Abbreviations, use of period with, 12; of firms and corporations; capitalization of, 23; of degrees, capitalization of, 25; of titles and States, spacing of, 59–60; of italicized words in literary and legal references, 64; of dates and usages thereto, 65; of proper names, 66; of Christian names, 66–68; of titles, 68–75; of commercial terms, 76–77; of geographical terms, 77–81; miscellaneous, 81–89; scriptural, 90; of monetary signs, 90–91; of mathematical signs, 91–92; of medical signs, 92; not used in salutation of letters, 117. _-able_ and _-ible_, spelling of words terminating in, 38–39; in division of words, 53. Abstract ideas: capitalization of personified, 23. Accents: list of symbols, 2; list of accented words, 36–37; retention of, in foreign words used in English, 36–37. “Accept,” correct use of, 101. Acts, juridical, capitalization of, 27. A.D. (_anno Domini_): set in small caps, 30; spacing of, 59. “Addenda,” plural of _addendum_, 109. Address (of letters) the: business, formal, and informal, 116. Adjectival nouns, capitalization of, 24. Adjectives: use of comma with, 4, 5, 8; capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26; capitalization, with proper names, 26; compound, 46; ending in _-ical_, how to divide, 54. _ad loc._, italicized, 64. “Administration,” capitalization of, 25. “Admire,” correct use of, 101. “Admit,” correct use of, 101. “Admittance,” correct use of, 99. Adverbs: use of comma with, 4, 5; ending in “-ly” not to be hyphenated with adjectives and participles, 46; compound, treatment of, 51; position of, 101. _æ_, rules for use of, 33. “Affable,” correct use of, 101. “Affect,” correct use of, 101. Ages, to be spelled out, 32. “Aggravate,” correct use of, 101. “Ain’t,” correct use of, 101. Alford, Dean: on use of the comma, 4. Algebraic, unknown quantities italicized, 64. Alignment, of quotation marks, 16. Alliances, political, capitalization of names of, 27. “All right,” correct use of, 101. “Alternative,” correct use of, 101. A.M. (_ante meridiem_): set in small capitals, 30; spacing of, 59. Ampere. _See_ Electrical measures. Ampersand (&), the use of, 66. Analogy of language, influence in diction, 99. “And,” correct use of, 101; when to use comma before, 5. “Ante,” compounds with, 50. “Anti,” compounds with, 50. Antithetical clauses. _See_ Clauses. “Any place,” use of, 101. Apocrypha, list of abbreviations for, 90. Apostrophe: rules for use of, 18–19; in designating the possessive case, 18; in forming plurals of numerals, 19; in forming plurals of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant, 19; in indicating omission of letters or figures, 19; in indicating omission of letters in contracted words, 19; omission of, in words contracted in poetry, 19. Apothecaries’ weight, table of, 150. “Apparently,” correct use of, 101. “Apt,” correct use of, 102. Art, titles of works of, to be quoted, 17. Articles: definite, not to be treated as part of title of magazines and newspapers, 30; correct use of, 102. “As,” correct use of, 102. Astronomical terms: capitalization of, 23; names of stars and constellations, italicized, 64. “At,” correct use of, 102. “At length,” correct use of, 102. “Aught,” correct use of, 102. “Avail,” correct use of, 102. Avoirdupois weight, table of, 150. “Aware,” correct use of, 102. “Awful,” correct use of, 102. “Badly,” correct use of, 102. “Bank on,” use of, 102. Barrels, measures of, in gallons, 159. B.C. (_before Christ_): set in small caps, 30; spacing of, 59. “Beg,” correct use of, 103. Bells, use of on board ship, 161. “Bi-,” compounds with, 50. Bible: capitalization of names of books, divisions and versions of, 20; abbreviations for books of, 90. Biblical: parables, capitalization of, 20; general terms, capitalization of, 21; capitalization of names and terms of, 20–21; books, abbreviations for, 90. Blocked indention: in general, 56; of address of letters, 116. Books: capitalization of titles, 26; italicizing of titles, 62; biblical abbreviations of, 90. Botanical terms: capitalization of, 23; names of genera and species, italicized, 64. Box-heads, omission of period after, 12. Brackets, rules for use of, 18. Break, or sudden change in sentence, indicated by dash, 13. Briefness of form preferred, 99. “Bring,” use of, 103. British Dependencies, weights and measures of, 159. British weights and measures, 153. “Brother,” compounds with, 47. Builders’ measures, table of, 157. Buildings, capitalization of names of, 23. Business letter. _See_ Letter. “But,” correct use of, 103. “By,” compounds with, 48. C, soft, do not divide on, 53. “Cabinet,” capitalization of, 25. Campbell, Dr. Thomas, canons of, 99–100. “Can,” distinguished from _may_, 103. Canada, postal rates to, 135. “Cannot but,” correct use of, 103. “Can’t seem,” correct use of, 103. Capitalization: of religious terms, 20–22; of proper names, 22–24; of titles, 24–26; of institutional terms, 26–28; of references, 28; of ordinals, 29; in general, 29–30; of abbreviation of academic degrees, 25; of abstract ideas personified, 23; of acts juridical, 27; of adjectives derived from proper nouns, 22; of adjectives and nouns designating definite geographical regions, 22; of astronomical terms, 23; of political alliances, 27; of books of the Bible, 20; of titles of books, 26; of botanical terms, 23; of buildings, 23; of “church,” 20; of civic titles, 25; of word following a colon, 26; of compound titles, 21; of hyphenated compounds, 29; of sessions of Congress, 29; of conventions, 25; of corporations — names and abbreviations, 23; of names of dynasties, 29; of ecclesiastical appellations, 26; of epithets used as proper names, 22; of titles of essays, 26; of “father,” 22; of “Fathers” — early church, 22; of foreign titles, as prefixes, 25–26; of geographical terms, 22–23; of geological terms, 23; of “gospel,” 20–21; of “government,” 25; of historical epochs, 22; of holidays, 26–27; of judiciary bodies, 28; of names of laws, 27; of names of legislative bodies, 28; of letters (correspondence), 29; of units of measurement, 29–30; of medical terms, 23; of military terms, 25; of monastic orders, 20; of “mother,” 24; of months of year, 23; of names for the Evil One, 21; names of political parties, 27; names of races, tribes, etc., 27; names of regiments, 29; of names of societies, 25; of popular names for the solar system, 23; of streets, parks, etc., 23; of titles of parables (biblical), 20; of titles of periodicals, 30; of “Pilgrim Fathers,” 22; of poetry, 29; of political alliances, 27; of political divisions, 28; of pronouns referring to the Deity, 21; of quotations, 29–30; of “revolutionary,” 22; of scientific terms, 23; of social organizations, 25; of side-heads, 29; of “State,” 24–25; of words on title-pages, 30; of names of treaties, 27; of “van” and “von” as prefixes, 25–26; of words with special meanings, 29; of zoölogical terms, 23; rules for, 20–30. Capitalized words, list of: religious, 21; proper, 24. Capitals: original use of, 20; rules for use of, 20–30; and small capitals, rules for use of, 28–30; how indicated in MS., 30. Cases: confusion of, 103. Caxton: his influence on punctuation, 9. Centered head-lines, omission of period after, 12. Centigrade. _See_ Thermometers. Centuries, numbers of, to be spelled out, 32. cf., to be set in roman, 64. “Cherubim,” plural of _cherub_, 109. “Childlike,” correct use of, 103. Christ, pronouns referring to, how capitalized, 21. Christian names, abbreviation of, 66–68. “Church,” when capitalized, 20. _Circa_ (_ca._), italicized, 64. Circular measure, table of, 151. Circulars, postal rates and regulations for, 130. Citation of legal causes: names of, italicized, 64; of author’s own words, quotation marks used, 16; of different works by same author or by different authors without intervening original matter, to be quoted, 16. Civil titles, capitalization of, 25. Classes of mail, rates, etc., 129–132. Clauses, use of comma with: inverted, 5; independent, 6; relative, 6; dependent, 6; parenthetical, 5; co-ordinate, 6; antithetical, 7; Use of dash before concluding clause, 13. Cloth measure, table of, 151. “Co-,” compounds with, 47–48. Coins, foreign: list of, showing comparative values, 145–147. “College,” capitalization of, 27. Colon: definition and use of, 10–11; capitalization, following use of, 26, 29, 30; use of in formal salutatory phrases beginning letters, 11, 117; in titles of literary references, 11; of names of publishers, 11; first word following, in quotation, capitalized, 11; use of, with quotation-marks, 11; before formal quotations, 11; separating chapter and verse in scriptural references, 11; in separating divisions of time, 11; use of hair-space before, 59; separating city of publication and publisher’s name, 11. “Colonel,” when spelled in full, and when abbreviated, 68–69. “Color,” hyphenization of compounds of, 46. “Come,” correct use of, 103. Comma: definition and use of, 4; when omitted, 7–8; omitted between two adjectives, 4; use of, with adverbs, 4, 5; with adjectives, 4, 5; before “but,” 6. With clauses: antithetical, 7; co-ordinate, 6, 7; dependent, 6; parenthetical, 5; and relative, 6. Use of: with conjunctions, 4–7; separating degrees from names of persons, 7; indicating ellipses, 7; separating numbers, 7; with quotation-marks, 4; with phrases, inverted and in opposition, 5–6; before “of” in connection with residence, 7; in salutatory phrase, 7, 117; in inverted sentences, 5; separating titles from names, 6; separating vocative words, 7; substitution of dashes for, 14; use of with exclamation point, 15; rules for use of, 4–8; omitted with pronouns used with nouns for emphasis, 8. Comments, notes of, inclosed in brackets, 18. Commercial terms, abbreviation of, 76–77. “Common,” correct use of, 103. “Company”: capitalization of, 23; abbreviation of, 66; use of (&) with, 66. Compass: capitalization of points of, 22, 23, 24; hyphenization of points of, 49. Complimentary close, of letters, 121. Compound: adjectives, 46; adverbs, 51. {168} Compound titles, spelling, abbreviation, and capitalization of, 68–96. Compound words: general theory of and rules for, 45–51; list of, 49; division of, to be avoided, 54. Compounds, hyphenated: capitalization of, 29. Compounds, with: “a-” (negative prefix), 50; “ante,” 50; “anti,” 50; “bi,” 50; “brother,” 47; “by,” 48; “co,” 47–48; “daughter,” 47; “demi,” 50; “deutero,” 51; “elect,” 47; “electro,” 51; “ex,” 47; “extra,” 48; “eye,” 51; “father,” 47; “fellow,” 47; “foster,” 47; “general,” 47; “god,” 47; “half,” 47; “holder,” 51; “in,” 50; “infra,” 48; “inter,” 50; “intra,” 50; (negative prefix), 50; “life,” 47; “like,” 49; “man,” 49; “master,” 47; “mid,” 46; “monger,” 51; “mother,” 47; “non-,” 50; “over,” 50; “parent,” 47; “post,” 50; “pre,” 47–48; “pseudo,” 51; “quarter,” 47; “quasi,” 48; “re,” 47–48; “school,” 51; “self,” 47; “semi,” 48, 50; “sister,” 47; “sub,” 50; “sulpho,” 51; “super,” 50; “supra,” 48; “thermo,” 51; “to,” 50; “tree,” 49; “tri,” 50; “ultra,” 48; “un” (negative prefix), 50; “under,” 50; “vice,” 46; “woman,” 49; “world,” 47. Concealed mail matter, law concerning, 133. “Confess,” use of, 103. Congress: sessions of, capitalization, 29; numbers of, spelled out, 32. Conjunctions: use of comma with, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26. “Conscious,” correct use of, 103. Consonants, construction of, rules for division of words, 52–53. Constellations, names of, italicized, 64. “Constitution,” capitalization of, 25. “Continual,” correct use of, 103. Contraction of word, use of apostrophe, 19. Conventions, capitalization of names of, 25. Co-ordinate clauses. _See_ Clauses. Corporations, capitalization of names, of abbreviations, and of “Co.,” 23. Corrections, indicated by use of brackets, 18. Correctness, a requisite of discourse, 99. Credits, italicizing of, 62. Criticisms, indicated by use of brackets, 18. Cuba, postal rates to, 135. Cubic measure, table of, 152. Cut-in side notes, omission of period after, 12. Dashes: use of, with changed construction, dates, abrupt terminations, rhetorical emphasis, verse and page references, short, snappy sentences, omitted letters, concluding clauses, 13; for separating subject-matter from its authority, 13; to precede addition to completed sentence, 14; substitution of, for commas or parenthesis, 14; with colon, to mark long quotation, 14; substitution of, for quotation-marks, 14; misuse of, 12; rules for, 13–14; use in France, 14; use of hair-space with, 59; examples of, 60; use of in salutatory phrases of letters, 117. “Data,” plural of _datum_, 109. Date-lines, omission of period after, 12. Dates: use of dash to connect, 13; abbreviation of, 65–66; _st_, _d_, _rd_, and _th_, to be omitted, 65; of letters, where placed, when capitalized and italicized, 30; _ult._, _inst._, and _prox._, not used, 65; the Dewey, 66; of letters, 115. “Daughter,” compounds with, 47. Days of week: capitalization of, 23; abbreviation of, 65–66. “Deadly,” correct use of, 103. Decades, specific references to, spelled out, 32. “Decided,” correct use of, 104. “Definite,” correct use of, 104. Degrees: capitalization and abbreviations of, 25; use of comma separating, from name of person, 6. “Demean,” correct use of, 104. “Demi,” compounds with, 50. Dependent clauses, use of comma, 6. Derivation, influence of, in division, 52, 53. “Deutero,” compounds with, 51. Devil. _See_ Evil One. Dewey abbreviations of dates, the, 66. Diction, correct and faulty, 99–113; Dr. Campbell’s canons, 99; use of standard authors, 100; list of words and phrases, 101–113. Dictionary, the function of, 100. “Different,” correct use of, 104. Diphthongs, general rules for, 33. Directions, use of brackets in indicating, 18. “Directly,” use of, 104. Disbelief, in statement, indicated by use of exclamation-point, 15. “Discover,” correct use of, 104. Display composition, use of period after, 12. Division of words: rules for, 52–54; avoid unnecessary, 52; on two letters to be avoided, 53. Divisional mark, avoid separating from matter it pertains to, 54. Dollars ($), no space between symbol and following figures, 60; table of monetary signs, 90–91. Domestic postal rates, 134. “Donne,” plural of _donna_, 109. “Don’t,” correct use of, 104. Drop-folios, enclosed by brackets, 18. Dry measure, table of, 150. Dynasties: capitalization of names, 29; numbers of, to be spelled out, 32. “Each other,” correct use of, 104. Ecclesiastical appellations, capitalization of, 26. “Effect,” correct use of, 104. e.g., set in roman, 64. “Egoists,” correct use of, 104. “Either,” correct use of, 104. “Elect,” compounds with, 47. Electrical measures, 155–156. “Electro,” compounds with, 51. Ellipses: comma indicating, 7; period indicating, 12; to be treated as part of quotation, 17. Emphasis, rhetorical: use of dash to secure, 13; of exclamation-point, 15; of paragraph, 57–58; of italics, 62. En échelon indention: described, 56; use of in addressing letters, 116; “Enormity,” correct use of, 104. “Enthuse,” (verb) correct use of, 104. Enumerations, use of parentheses in connection with letters or figures used to express subdivisions in, 18. Envelopes, rules for addressing, 123–124. Epithets: capitalized when used as proper names, 22; hyphenization of compound personal, 49. Essays, capitalization of titles, 26. etc., quotation-marks to include, 17. Euphony, authority of, 100. European countries, weights and measures of, 159–160. “Every place,” written _everywhere_, 104. Evil One, the capitalization of names for, 21. “ex-,” prefixed to titles, 47. “Excellent,” never qualified, 104. “Except” (verb), correct use of, 104. “Exceptional,” correct use of, 105. Exclamation-point: proper use of, 14–15; with quotation-marks, 14–15; origin, 15; expressing strong emotion, 15; sarcasm or doubt, 15; use of, with comma, 15; as distinguished from vocative, 15; use of hair-space preceding, 59. “Expect,” correct use of, 105. Expositions, capitalization of names of, 25. “Extra,” compounds with, 48. “Eye,” compounds with, 51. Fahrenheit. _See_ Thermometers. “Falseness,” correct use of, 105. Family names, capitalization of, 24. “Fathers”: capitalization of, 24; use of compounds with, 47. “Federal,” capitalization of, 25. “Fellow,” compounds of, 47. Figures: rules for use of, 31–33; use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19; used to mark divisions in enumerations, to be placed in parentheses, 18; percentage, figures always to be used, 31; use of, in statistics, 32; spacing of, 59; spacing between, and $, £, 60. “Fix,” correct use of, 105. Foreign languages: capitalization of titles, as _von_, _le_, _da_, etc., 25–26; spelling of words ending in _re_ (French), 36; words and phrases, when italicized, 62–63; list of italicized and not italicized words, 63; use of accents, 36–37. Foreign titles, capitalization of, 25–26. Foreign words, plurals of. _See_ Plurals. Formal letter. _See_ Letter. “Former,” correct use of, 105. Forwarding of mail matter, 132. “Foster,” compounds with, 47. Fractions, use of hyphens in spelling, 48. France, use of dash in, 14. French endings in _re_, not to be used, 36. G, soft, do not divide on, 53. “General,” compounds with, 47. “Gentleman,” correct use of, 105. “Gentleman friend,” to be avoided, 105. Geographical terms: capitalization of, 22; abbreviations of, 77–81. Geological terms: capitalization of, 23; italicized, 64. Geometric symbols, as unknown quantities, italics, 64. “Go,” correct use of, 105. God: pronouns referring to, capitalization of, 21; compounds with, 47. “Gospel,” when capitalized, 20–21. “Got,” correct use of, 105. “Gotten”: obsolete, 105; improper use of, 105. “Government,” capitalization of, 25. Governmental terms, capitalization of, 25. Grain and Hay, measures of, 157–158. “Guess,” correct use of, 105. Hair-space, use of, 59–61. “Half,” compounds with, 47. Half-diamond indention, 56. “Hanged,” distinguished from _hung_, 105. Hanging indention, described, 56. “Hardly,” never preceded by _not_, 105. “He,” correct use of, 105. Headings: capitalization of certain words, 30; of letters (correspondence), 115. Head-lines, omission of period after, 12. “Healthful,” correct use of, 105. “Her,” correct use of, 106. “Him,” correct use of, 106. Historical epochs, capitalization of appellation for, 24. “Hoi polloi,” never preceded by _the_, 106. “Holder,” compounds with, 51. Holidays, capitalization of names of, 26–27. “Holy,” capitalization of, 21. “Honorable,” correct use of, 106. Honorary titles, capitalization of, 25. “Hung,” distinguished from _hanged_, 106. Hyphenated compounds: capitalization of, 29; avoid division of, 54. Hyphenization, rules for, 45–51. Hyphens: list of hyphenated words, 49; rules for use of, 45–51; purpose of, 19; use of hair-space with, 59. _See_ Compounds. “I”: capitalization of word, 29. _See_ under _Me_. _Ibid._, italicized, 64. _-ible_ and _-able_. _See_ _-able_. _-ical_, in divisions, 54. _Idem_, italicized, 64. i.e., set in roman, 64. “If,” correct use of, 106. Illustrations, legends beneath, omission of period, 12. “In,” correct use of, 106. “In-” (negative prefix), compounds with, 50. Indention: rules for, 55–56; prose, each paragraph indented, 55; numbered paragraphs, treatment of, 55; of poetry, reverse indention, 55; of quotations, 55; different forms of, viz.: En échelon, Hanging, Half-diamond, Lozenge, Blocked, and Irregular, 55–56; use of in addressing letters, 116. Independent sentences, first word capitalized after colon, 29. Infinitive, the, never separated from _to_, 106. Informal letter. _See_ Letter. “Infra,” compounds with, 48; italicization of, 64. _-ing_: verbal nouns (ending in) distinguished from participles, 106. Initials, not to be divided, 54. “Inside of,” distinguished from _within_, 106. _Inst._, not used, 65. Institutional terms, capitalization of, 26–28. “Inter,” compounds with, 50. International money orders, fees for, 137. Interrogation-point: origin of, 15; use of, with quotations, 16; after direct questions, 16; to express doubt, 16; omission in indirect questions, 16; use of hair-space preceding, 59. “Intra,” compounds with, 50. “Invent,” distinguished from _discover_, 106. Ironical word or phrase, use of quotation marks for, 17. Irregular indention, described, 55. _-ise_ and _-ize_, spelling of words terminating in, 37–38. Italicizing: of abbreviations in literary and legal references, 64; of _ad loc._, 64; of algebraic unknown quantities, 64; of astronomical names, 64; of titles of books, 62; of names of botanical genera and species, 64; of names in citations of legal causes, 64; of _circa_ (_ca._), 64; of names of constellations, 64; of credits, at end of article, 62; for purpose of emphasis, 62; of names of geological subjects, 64; of geometric unknown quantities, 64; of _ibid._, 64; of _idem_, 64; of _infra_, 64; of _loc. cit._, 64; of literary references, 64; of names of scientific genera and species, 64; of stars, 64; of titles of newspapers and periodicals, 64; of _op. cit._, 64; of _passim_, 64; of poetry, 62; in prefaces, 62; of word “Resolved,” 64; in running heads, 62; of abbreviations of “shillings,” “pence,” 64; of names of ships, 62; of side-heads, 62; of signatures, 62; of _supra_, 64; of _s.v._, 64; of _vide_, 64; of zoölogical genera, 64; rules for, 62–64; lists of foreign words, italicized and not, 62–64; of dates in letters, 30. Italics: origin of, 62; rules for, 62–64; list of foreign words and phrases not italicized, 63; list of italicized words, 63; how to indicate in MS., 64; italic punctuation marks, following, 64. J, do not divide on, 53. Journals. _See_ Periodicals. Judiciary bodies, capitalization of names of, 28. Juridical acts, treaties, etc., capitalization of names of, 27. Kerned letters, spacing of, 60. “Kind,” correct use of, 106. “Kind of,” not followed by _a_ or _an_, 106. “Lady.” _See_ under _Gentleman_. “Lady friend.” _See_ under _Gentleman friend_. Language, must convey writer’s meaning, 99. “Last,” distinguished from _latest_, 107. “Latter,” correct use of, 107. Laws, capitalization of names of, 27. “Lay,” distinguished from _lie_, 107. Legal references, words, phrases, and abbreviations italicized, 64. Legends, omission of period after, 12. Legislative bodies, capitalization of names of, 28. “Less,” distinguished from _fewer_, 107. Letter, Business: heading, 115; address, 116; salutation, 116; text of, 118; complimentary close, 121; signature, 122; envelope, 123; correct example of, 126. Letter, Formal: heading, 115; address, 116; salutation, 117–118; text of, 120; complimentary close, 122; signature, 122; envelope, 123; correct examples of, 126–128. Letter, Informal: heading, 115; address, 116; salutation, 117; text of, 120; complimentary close, 121–122; signature, 122; envelope, 123; correct examples of, 126–128. Letter writing: introductory remarks on, 114; rules for, 115–125; examples of correct, 126–128; the signature, 122–123; envelope, 123–124; postal cards, 125; in general, 125; business, formal, informal, treatment of, 115–122. Letters (correspondence): capitalization, punctuation, etc., rules for, 11, 12, 29; dates, where placed and when capitalized, 30; postal regulations, 129–141. Letters: use of dash to indicate omission of, 13; use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19; used to mark divisions in enumerations, to be set in parentheses, 18; spacing of superior and inferior, 59. “Liable,” distinguished from _likely_, 107. “Life,” compounds with, 47. “Like,” compounds with, 49. “Likely,” correct use of, 107. Linear measure, table of, 150. Liquid measure, table of, 150. Literary references: minor subdivisions, not capitalized, 28. “Loan,” not used as a verb, 107. “Locate,” distinguished from _settle_, 107. _Loc. cit._, italicized, 64. “Love,” distinguished from _like_, 107. Lozenge indention, described, 56. “Luxuriant,” distinguished from _luxurious_, 107. “Mad,” distinguished from _angry_, 107. Magazines. _See_ Periodicals. Mail matter: first class, defined, 129; second class, 129; third class, 130; fourth class, 131; wrapping of, 132; forwarding of, 132; what cannot be mailed, 132; concealed matter, 133; domestic rates, 134; foreign rates, 134; rates for Cuba, Mexico, Canada, and Panama, 135; foreign parcels post, 136; money orders, 137; international money orders, 137; registered, domestic, and foreign, 138; special delivery, 139; postal distances and time from New York, 140. “Major,” when spelled in full, 68. “Man,” compounds with, 49. _See_ under _Gentleman_. Manuscript: how to indicate capitals in, 30; italics in, 64. Manutius, Aldus: relation to punctuation of, 3; designer of italic types, 62. Mariners’ measure, table of, 151. “Master,” compounds with, 47. Mathematical signs, list of, 91–92. “May.” _See_ under _Can_. “Me,” correct use of, 107. “Means,” either singular or plural, 107. Measures: tables of, and general rules for, 149–160; linear, 150; square, 150; dry, 150; liquid, 150; paper, 151; time, 151; circular, 151; cloth, 151; mariners’, 151; surveyors’, 151; cubic, 152; British, 152; electrical, 155; builders’, 157; of timber and wood, 157; grain, 157; hay, 158; yard, 158; of barrels, 159; in the British Dependencies, 159; in European countries, 159–160. Medical: signs, list of, 92; capitalization of, terms, 23. “Memoranda,” plural of _memorandum_, 109. Metric system: of weights and measures, 149; of equivalents, 152. Mexico, postal rates to, 135. “Mid,” compounds with, 46. Military bodies, numbers of, spelled out, 32. Miscellaneous measures, table of, 151. Miscellaneous terms, abbreviations of, 81–89. Monastic orders, capitalization of, 20. Monetary signs, abbreviations of, 90–91; spacing of, 60. Money order fees, 137. “Monger,” compounds with, 51. Months of year: capitalization of, 23; numbers preceding spelled out, 32; abbreviations of, 65–66. “Most,” avoid using for _almost_, 107. “Mother”: capitalization of, 24; compounds with, 47. “Must,” correct use of, 107. “Mutual,” distinguished from _common_, 108. Names: capitalization of proper, 22–24; of publishers, in literary references, use of colon, 11; of societies, expositions, and conventions, capitalization of, 25; of races, tribes, etc., capitalization of, 27; abbreviation of proper, 66; Christian, 66–68; of scientific genera and species, italicized, 64; of stars, italicized, 64. “Negligence,” distinguished from _neglect_, 108. “Neither,” correct use of, 108. “News,” is singular, 108. Newspapers: titles of, article not treated as part of, 30; titles of, italicized, 62; postal rates and regulations for, 129. New Testament, list of abbreviations for, 90. “Nice,” correct use of, 108. Nobility, capitalization of titles of, 25. “No place,” written _nowhere_, 108. “Non-,” compounds with, 50. “Nor.” _See_ under _Or_. “Not . . . but,” double negative, 108. Notes, use of brackets in enclosing, 18. “Notorious,” correct use of, 108. Nouns: capitalization of geographical, simple and compounded, 22; capitalization of, followed by capitalized roman numeral, 28; hyphenization of, standing in objective relation to each other, 46–47; formation of possessive case of common and proper, 18–19; plural of polysyllabic proper ending in sibilant, how formed, 19; verbal, ending in _-ing_, distinguished from participles, 106. “Nowhere near,” vulgarism for _not nearly_, 108. Number: pronouns must agree with their antecedents, 108; of nouns and verbs must agree, 108. Numbers: use of comma with, 7; when to spell out, 31–33; use of apostrophe to indicate omission of, 19; percentage, figures always used, 31; in statistics, figures used, 32; in ordinary matter, of less than three digits, to be spelled out, 32; in groups, varying in digits use figures, 32; round, treatment of, 32; commencing a sentence, spelled out, 32; expressed in figures, not to be divided, 54. Numerals: use of period, following roman, 12; of apostrophe in forming plural, 19; roman, origin and early use of, 93–96; list of roman and arabic, 96–97; rules for use of roman, 98. “O,” capitalization of word, 29. _œ_, rules for use of 33. “Of”: correct use of, 108; use of comma before, in connection with proper name, 7. Ohm. _See_ Electrical measures. _Op. cit._, italicized, 64. “Open punctuation,” favored by best usage, 3–4; and “close punctuation,” 3–4. “Or,” correct use of, 108. Orders, monastic, capitalization of, 20. Ordinals, capitalization of, 29. Orthography: rules of, 33–36; final _f_, _l_, or _s_, 33; final consonant following diphthong, 33; added terminations after final accented syllable, 33–34; after diphthong or two vowels, 34; after final syllable ending in two consonants, 34; after final silent _e_, 34–35; after _ce_ or _ge_, 35; after final _e_ in participles, 35; after final _ie_, 35; after final _y_, 35–36; of French endings in _-re_, 36; of possessives of proper nouns, 36; of _-sion_ and _-tion_, 36; of _-or_ and _-our_, 34. “Ought,” never combined with had, 109 _-our_, words ending in, 34. “Out loud,” never used for _aloud_, 109. “Over” compounds with, 50. Panama, postal rates to, 135. Paper measure, table of, 151. Parables, biblical, capitalization of titles, 20. Paragraphs, explanation of, 57; rules for, 55–58; unity, 57; emphasis, 57, 58; length, 57; coherence, 57; connective words between related sentences, 58; space used proportional to importance, 58; length, 58; indention of, 55, 57, 58, 60. Parcel post, domestic, 131, 162; foreign, 136. “Parent,” compounds of, 47. Parentheses: substitution of dashes for, 14; use of, with interrogation-point, 16; placing of period with, 11; defined, 18; use of, in figures or letters to mark divisions in enumerations, 18; subdivided by brackets, 18. Parenthetical clauses. _See_ Clauses. Parks, capitalization of names of, 23. “Partake of,” never used for _eat_, 109. Participles: list of, how spelled, 37; not to be hyphenated with adverbs ending in “-ly,” 46; ending in _-ing_, distinguished from verbal nouns, 106. Particles, in French, German, Italian, and Dutch, capitalization of, 25–26. Parties, political, capitalization of names of, 27. “Party,” never used for _person_, 109. _Passim_, italicized, 64. Pence. _See_ Shillings. Peoples, capitalization of names or epithets of, 27. “Per,” correct use of, 109. Percentage, use of figures in, 31. “Perception,” correct use of, 109. Periodicals: titles of, definite article not to be treated as part of, 30; use of italics for, 62; postal rates, etc., 129. Periods: placing of, in connection with quotation-marks, 11; rules for use of, 11–12; omitted after running-heads, 12; after box-heads in tables, 12; after cut-in side notes, 12; after centered head-lines, 12; after legends, 12; after subheads, 12; after date-lines, 12; after signatures, 12; after titles, blocked headings, etc., 12; after roman numerals, 12; use of, after abbreviations, 12; after a complete sentence, 12; to indicate an ellipsis, 12. Personifications: abstract ideas, capitalization of, 23. Phrases: inverted, use of comma, 5; in apposition, use of comma, 6; salutatory, use of comma, 7; foreign, italicization of, 62–63. “Pilgrim Fathers,” capitalization of, 22. Plays, rule for references to, 66. Plurals, of foreign words: _cherub_, _memorandum_, _datum_, _donna_, _stratum_, _addendum_, and _rubai_, 109. P.M. (_post meridiem_): set in small capitals, 30; spacing of, 59. Poetry: rules for quotation alignment, in setting, 17; titles of poems, to be quoted, 17; omission of apostrophe in poems when word is contracted for meter, 19; capitalization of first word of each line, 29; indention of, 55; italicizing of, 62. Points of compass: capitalization of, 22, 23, 24; hyphenization, 49. Political alliances, parties, divisions, capitalization of names of, 27, 28. Political divisions, capitalization of, 28. Possessive case, how designated, 19. Possessives of proper nouns ending in _s_, how formed, 36. “Post,” compounds with, 50. Postal cards, use of, 125. Postal regulations, 129–141. Pounds (£), no space between symbol and preceding figures, 60. “Pre-,” compounds with, 47–48. Preface, use of italic in, 62. Prefixes, “co-,” “pre-,” and “re-,” hyphenization of, 47–48. Prepositions, capitalization of, in titles of books and essays, 26. “President,” capitalization of, 25; when spelled in full, 68. “Pretty,” correct use of, 109. “Professor,” when spelled in full, 68. Pronouns: used with noun for emphasis, comma omitted, 8; referring to Deity, capitalization of, 21. Pronunciation, correct, influence of, in division of words, 52–54. Proper names: capitalization, of, 22–24; abbreviation of, 66; derivatives from, familiarly used, not capitalized, 24. Proper nouns: formation of possessive, 36. “Propose,” distinguished from _purpose_, 109. _Prox._, not used, 65. Psalms: capitalization of titles of, 21; capitalization of, 22. “Pseudo,” compounds with, 51. Publications: use of colon in titles of literary references, 11; use of italics for, 62. Publishers: use of colon separating city of publication and name of, in literary references, 11. Punctuation: origin and purpose of, 3; rules for, 3–19; of headings of letters, 115; “open” and “close,” 3–4. Punctuation marks: list of, 2; after italics to be italic, 64. Q, inseparable from _u_, 53. “Quarter,” compounds with, 47. “Quasi,” compounds with, 48. Queries, when bracketed, 18. Question-mark. _See_ Interrogation-point. “Quite,” correct use of, 109. Quotation-marks: use of, 16–17; double and single, 16–17; in poetry, 16; in ellipses, 17; repetition in paragraph beginnings, 17; in titles of poems, books, etc., 17; serial titles, 17; names of ships, 17; titles of works of art, 17; words and phrases accompanied by definitions and specially emphasized, or intended to possess unusual, technical, or ironical meanings, 17; use of colon with, 10; substitution of dash for, 14; use of comma with, 7; use of colon and dash before, 14; use of exclamation-point with, 15; capitalization of first word in, 29; following colon, 30; use of hair-space inside, 59. Quotations: indention of, 55. Races, capitalization of names of, 27. “Railroad,” to be spelled out, 66. “Raise,” never used as noun, 109. “Rarely ever,” vulgarism for _rarely_, 109. Rates, postal, 129–132. “Re-,” compounds with, 47–48. _-re_, French ending not used, 36. Réaumur. _See_ Thermometers. “Reference,” used with _with_ not _in_, 109. References, capitalization of, nouns, 28; literary references, 28; use of colon in scriptural, 11; italics used in words, phrases, and abbreviations of literary and legal, 64. “Regard.” _See_ under _Reference_. Regiments, capitalization of names of, 29. Regions, or parts of the world, proper capitalization of, 22–23. Registered mail, domestic and foreign, regulations for, 138. “Relative,” use of the word, 99. Relative clauses, use of comma with, 6. Religious terms, capitalization of, 20–22, 26. Residence, use of comma before “of” in connection with, 7. Resolutions: word “Resolved” in, italicized, 64; word “Whereas,” 26. “Resolved,” in resolutions, word following, to be capitalized, 26; italicization of, 64. Respect, capitalization of titles of, 25. “Respect.” _See_ under _Reference_. “Reverend,” always preceded by _the_, 110. Reverse indention, 55. “Revolutionary,” capitalization of, 22. Roman: used in medical terms, 64; in certain words and phrases, literary and legal, 64. Roman numerals: use of period after, 12. _See_ Numerals. “Rubaiyat,” plural of _rubai_, 109. Running-heads, period not used following, 12. Salutatory phrase: of letters, business, formal and informal, 116–118; use of comma, 7. _See_ Phrase. “Same,” not used as pronoun, 110. “Same as,” distinguished from _just as_, 110. Sarcasm, indicated by use of exclamation-point, 15. “Scarcely.” _See_ under _Hardly_. “School,” compounds with, 51. Scientific terms, capitalization of, 23; italicizing of, 64. Scriptural terms, abbreviations of, 90. Scripture, punctuation of: comma, 9; colon, 11; dash, 13; spacing of, references, 60. Seasons, capitalization of, 23. “Seldom ever.” _See_ under _Rarely ever_. “Self,” compounds with, 47. “Semi,” compounds with, 48, 50. Semicolon: defined, 8, 9; compared with comma, 9; placing of, in connection with quotation-marks, 9; rules for use of, 9; dividing compound sentences, 9; separating passages in Scripture references containing chapters, 9; use of hair-space preceding, 59. “Sensible of,” distinguished from _sensitive to_, 110. Sentences: first word of, capitalized, 29; first word after colon capitalized in independent, 29; connection of, in paragraph, 58. Serial titles, to be quoted, 17. “Set,” distinguished from _sit_, 110. “Sewage,” correct use of, 110. “Shall,” correct use of, 110. “She.” _See_ under _Her_. Shillings and pence, abbreviations, _s._ and _d._, italics, 64. Ships: names of, quoted, 17; names of, italicized, 62; time and watch on board, 161. “Should,” correct use of, 111. “Show,” correct use of, 111. “Show up,” vulgarism for _expose_, 111. Side-heads: capitalization of, 29; italicizing of, 62. Signatures, omission of period after, 12; italicizing of, 62; general rules for, 122. “Since,” correct use of, 111. _-sion_ and _-tion_, spelling of words terminating in, 39–40. “Sister,” compounds with, 47. “Size up,” vulgarism for _estimate_, 111. Small capitals: how indicated in MS., 30; rules for, 30. “So,” correct use of, 111. Social organizations, capitalization of, 25. Solar system, capitalization of popular names of, 23. “Some,” correct use of, 111. “Some one,” not a compound word, 51 “Some place,” written _somewhere_, 111. “Sort.” _See_ under _Kind_. “Sort of,” correct use of, 111. Sovereigns, abbreviation of names of, 69. Spaces, examples of, 61. Spacing: rules for, 59–61; uniformity of, 59; hair-spaces in connection with punctuation marks, 59; of abbreviated titles, 25, 59–60; of Scripture references, 60; of A.M., P.M., etc., 59; symbols and figures, 60; at end of paragraph, 60; in regard to turn-overs, 60; kerned letters, _f_ and _j_ require hair-spaces, 60; wide spacing, 60; examples, dashes and spaces, 60–61; of abbreviations of railroads, 66. Special delivery, mail system, 139. Species, scientific names of: use of capitals, 23; italicizing of, 64. Spelling: rules for, 31–34; difficulties and choice of usages, 31; of decades, ages, centuries, dynasties, 32; of numbers of military bodies, streets, sessions of Congress, 32; of numbers, 31–32; of time of day, 32–33; use of diphthongs, 33; rules of orthography, 33–36, _see_ Orthography; lists of words, — accented words, 37; participles, 37; variable endings, _-ize_, 37–38; ending in _-ise_, 38; ending in _-ible_ and _-able_, 39; ending in _-sion_ and _-tion_, 39–40; pronounced alike, but varying in meaning according to spelling, 40–44. “Splendid,” correct use of, 111. Square measure, table of, 150. Squares, capitalization of names of, 23. Standard time: meaning and explanation of, 142–144; table of, 144. Stars, names of, italicized, 64. “Start,” distinguished from _begin_, 111. “State,” capitalization of, 24–25. States: spacing of abbreviations of, 60–61; list of abbreviations of, 77–81. Statistics, treatment of numbers in, 32. “Stop,” distinguished from _stay_, 111. “Strata,” plural of _stratum_, 109. Streets: capitalization of names of, 23; numbers of, spelled out, 32. “Sub,” compounds with, 50. Subdivisions: in literary references, not capitalized, 28. Subheads, omission of period after, 12; italicizing of, 62. Subject-matter: separation of, by dash, from its authority, 13. “Sulpho,” compounds with, 51 “Super,” compounds with, 50. “Supra,” compounds with, 48; italicized, 64. Surveyors’ measure, table of, 151. _s.v._, italicized, 64. Symbols: monetary, 90–91; mathematical, 91–92; medical, 93; spacing of monetary, 60. Tables: box-heads in, omission of period, 12. “Take,” correct use of, 111. “Take stock in,” slang expression, 112. Technical: use of figures in, matter, 32; words or phrases, use of quotation-marks for, 17. Tense, common errors of, 112. Text of letters: business, formal, and informal, 118–120. “That.” _See_ under _Which_. “The,” not part of title of magazines and papers, 30. “Them,” distinguished from _they_, 112. “Thermo,” compounds with, 51. Thermometers, comparative table: Réaumur, Centigrade, Fahrenheit, 148. “They.” _See_ under _Them_. “This,” not used as adverb, 112. Thoroughfares: capitalization of names of, 23; numbers of, spelled out, 32. “Through,” distinguished from _finished_, 112. Timber and wood, measures of, 157. Time: use of colon between hours and minutes, 11; of day, when spelled out, 32; standard, explanation of, 142–144; on board ship, 161. Time measure, table of, 151. _-tion_ and _-sion_. See _-sion_. Title-pages, capitalization of certain words, 30. Titles: capitalization of, 24–26; of poems, series, and works of art, to be quoted, 17; of parables (biblical), capitalization of, 20; of psalms, capitalization of, 20; use of colon in literary references, 10–11; capitalization of compounded, 22; use of comma separating, from names, 6; of honor, nobility, and respect, capitalization of, 25; civil and military, capitalization of, 25; foreign, capitalization of, 25–26; of books or essays, capitalization of, 26; of treaties, laws, and acts, capitalization of, 27; definite article not treated as part of, in newspapers or magazines, 30; “ex,” “vice,” “general,” “elect,” etc., use of hyphen in connecting, 47; italicizing of books, newspapers, and periodicals, 62; abbreviations of, with lists, 68–75; capitalize when used alone 68–69; of sovereigns, 69. “To,” compounds with, 50. “Too,” correct use of, 112. “Treat,” followed by _of_, 112. Treaties, capitalization of names of, 27. “Tree,” compounds with, 49. “Tri-,” compounds with, 50. Tribes, capitalization of names of, 27. Troy ounce, uses of the, 154–155. Troy weight, table of, 150. “Try,” followed by _to_, 112. Two-letter syllables, avoid division of, 53. “Ugly,” correct use of, 112. _Ult._, not used, 65. “Ultra,” compounds with, 48. “Un-” (negative prefix), compounds with, 50. “Under,” compounds with, 50. “United States,” when abbreviated, 66. Units of measure, not capitalized, 29–30. Unity of paragraphs, 57. “University,” capitalization of, 27. Unknown quantities: algebraic, geometric, etc., italicized, 64. v. (_versus_), set in roman, 64. “Van,” capitalization of, 25–26. Verbal nouns, ending in _-ing_, distinguished from participles, 106. Verbs, not to be omitted from sentence, 112. Versions of Bible, capitalization of, 20. “Very,” correct use of, 112. “Vice,” compounds with, 46. _Vide_, italicized, 64. “Visitor,” distinguished from _visitant_, 113. “viz.,” set in roman, 64. “Vocation,” distinguished from _avocation_, 113. Vocative words, comma separating, 7; “O” as distinguished from exclamatory “oh,” 15. Volt. _See_ Electrical measures. “Von,” capitalization of, 25–26. Vowels, rules for division of words based upon, 52–53. “Want,” correct use of, 113. Watch on board ship, the, 161. Watt. _See_ Electrical measures. “Way,” not to be used for _away_, 113. Week, days of: capitalization of, 23; abbreviation of, 65–66. Weights: metric system, table 149; apothecaries’, 150; avoirdupois, 150; British, 153; the Troy ounce, 155; Indian, 159; foreign, 160; and measures, tables and rules for, 149–160. “What,” distinguished from _that_, 113. “Whereas,” in resolutions, use of capital, 26. “Which,” correct use of, 113. “Who,” correct use of, 113. “Will.” _See_ under _Shall_. “Woman,” compounds with, 49; correct use of, _See_ _Gentleman_. “Womanly,” distinguished from _womanish_, 113. Words: accompanied by definition, to be quoted, 17; of unusual, technical, or ironical meanings, to be quoted, 17; specially desired to attract attention, to be quoted, 17; contraction of, omission indicated by apostrophe, 19; derived from proper names, capitalization of, 24; with special meaning, capitalization of, 29; accented, 37; pronounced alike, but varying in meaning, according to spelling, list of 40–44; foreign, italicizing of, 62–63. “World,” compounds with, 47. “Would.” _See_ under _Should_. Wrapping, of mail matter, 132. X, do not divide on, 53. Yard measures, table of, 158. Years, numbers preceding, spelled out, 32. Zoölogical terms: capitalization of, 23; italicizing of, 64. * * * * * * Transcriber’s note: Original spelling and grammar have been generally retained, with some exceptions noted below. Footnotes have been relabeled 1–32. Large curly brackets } used as graphic devices to combine information over two or more lines of text have been eliminated, restructuring as necessary to retain the original meaning. There are many uncommon unicode characters in this book; specialized fonts may be necessary to view them all in the simple text edition. Images of many of them are substituted in the html and epub & mobi editions. Examples― On page 91, the mathematical sign for “The difference between” is shown in the original book as a glyph like a tilde, reproduced in the html/epub/mobi editions as an image from the printed book. The text edition of this transcription uses ‘≏’ (U+224F DIFFERENCE BETWEEN). On page 92, the glyph for “Factorial sign” is shown in the original book as a right angle, roughly L shaped, with a “5” nestled into the angle (the printed example means specifically “factorial of 5”). This form is evidently obsolete, and the transcriber failed to find a Unicode method of representation. So in the text edition the code “[∟5]” is substituted, while in the html/epub/mobi editions, an image is used. In the phrase on page 95 "one of those figures, CIↃ, CD, ∞, ⅿ", the original book showed an uncial m where this simple text transcription edition has [U+217F SMALL ROMAN NUMERAL ONE THOUSAND]. This glyph recurs on page 98. As usual, an image is substituted in the html/epub/mobi editions. Page 60. The second paragraph was printed so as to look approximately like the following: “[ . . . ] _II Sam. 1 : 2–6; 2 : 8–12._”, namely, with equal space on either side of the colon in the first instance and unequal spaces in the second instance. This transcription makes it equal spaces, U+200A (hair space). Pages 65–92. The chapter titled ABBREVIATIONS contains several sections: in order, “DATES”, “PROPER NAMES”, “TITLES”, “6. COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS”, “7. GEOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS”, &c. These are given html heading level code “

” in this transcription. Unfortunately, there were no numbered headings corresponding to numbers 1–5 in the original book, so these are missing from this transcription as well. (There were and remain paragraphs numbered 1–5, with no headings, but those all belong to the section “TITLES”) Page 149. In the original table “Weights and Measures”, the first and fifth columns are not directly related to the other three, and arguably do not belong in the table. Therefore, these columns have been stripped out of the table and recast as a nested list ahead of the table. Page 152. The phrase “1 lite” was changed to “1 liter”. Page 168, Index entry “Compounds, with:”; a pointer to page 50 was added for subentry ‘ “in” ’. *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WRITER'S DESK BOOK *** Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed. 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