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ꀄINDX��������^�TAGX 5D^IDXT�INDX�P^��������00� ���01"����020����03C����04E�&���05k�� ��06|����07 ��܀08 �3���09?�a�Ԁ0A ��Ԁ0B/��ˀ0C?��"À0D\����0E]��&Ȁ0Fu��*��10� �.��11�+�2��12;��6��13I��:��14W����15Y�"�>��16{��B��17�#�F��18;��J��19M��N��1Ae�A�Q��1B&��U��1CA�(�Yʀ1Di�#�\�1E ��߀1F�1�`ހ20?�!�d׀21a� �fπ22k�.�jˀ23��nÀ24*����25+��r��26A�#�v��27d�M�v׀28 1��zπ29 E��ɀ2A G�$�~ǀ2B k�H���2C 4����2D O����2E P�� ��2F c�'���30 �-���31 7����32 8����33 O�&���34 u�N���35 D��"��36 L��̀37 M�,�&��38 y��*��39 �4�.��3A I�2�2��3B {�E�6��3CA�7�:��3Dy��>��3E�.�B��3F=���40?�"�D��41b��H��42r�4�L��43&����44'� �P��451�B�T��46s�J�X��47>�+�\��48j� �`��49u�!�c��4A�M�g��4Be����4Cf�I�k�4D/��o�4E6�]�s�4F�o�w�50��Ȁ51�"�{ـ52'�7�ـ53^��р54p��ɀ55�2� ��565���576�!���58W� ���59x�%���5A� ���5B)����5C8����5DR����IDXT������)5AMYeq}���������� %1=IUamy����������'4ANZgt����������(5BO\hu����������(5B�RIVER AND CANAL ENGINEERING�RIVER AND CANAL ENGINEERING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN FLOWING STREAMS, AND THE PRINCIPLES AND METHODS TO BE FOLLOWED IN DEALING WITH THEM BY E. S. BELLASIS, M.Inst.C.E. RECENTLY SUPERINTENDING ENGINEER IN THE IRRIGATION BRANCH OF THE PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT OF INDIA 72 ILLUSTRATIONS London E. & F. N. SPON, Ltd., 57 HAYMARKET, S.W. New York SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 123 LIBERTY STREET 1913�PREFACE�RIVER AND CANAL ENGINEERING CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION�CHAPTER II RAINFALL�CHAPTER III COLLECTION OF INFORMATION CONCERNING STREAMS�CHAPTER IV THE SILTING AND SCOURING ACTION OF STREAMS�CHAPTER V METHODS OF INCREASING OR REDUCING SILTING OR SCOUR�CHAPTER VI WORKS FOR THE PROTECTION OF BANKS�CHAPTER VII DIVERSIONS AND CLOSURES OF STREAMS�CHAPTER VIII THE TRAINING AND CANALISATION OF RIVERS�CHAPTER IX CANALS AND CONDUITS�CHAPTER X WEIRS AND SLUICES�CHAPTER XI BRIDGES AND SYPHONS�CHAPTER XII DRAINAGE AND FLOODS�CHAPTER XIII RESERVOIRS AND DAMS�CHAPTER XIV TIDAL WATERS AND WORKS�CHAPTER XV RIVER BARS�APPENDIX A�APPENDIX B�INDEX�Transcriber’s Note:�1. Preliminary Remarks.—River and Canal Engineering is that branch of engineering science which deals with the characteristics of streams flowing in open channels, and with the principles and methods which should be followed in dealing with, altering, and controlling them. It is not necessary to make a general distinction between natural and artificial streams; some irrigation canals or other artificial channels are as large as rivers and have many of the same characteristics. Any special remark�3. Design and Execution of Works.—After obtaining full information concerning the stream to be dealt with, careful calculations are, in the case of any large and important work, made as to the effects which will be produced by it. These effects cannot always be exactly foreseen. Sometimes matters can be arranged so that the work can be stopped short at some stage without destroying the utility of the portion done, or so that the completed work can be altered to some extent.�4. The Hydraulics of Open Streams.—When any reach of a stream is altered, say by widening, narrowing, or deepening, so that the water-level is changed, there will also be a change in the water-level, a gradually diminishing change, for some distance upstream of the reach. Also in the lowest portion of the reach the change will gradually diminish and it will vanish at the extreme downstream end of the reach. In the next lowest reach there is no change. Thus if it is desired that the change in the�1. Rainfall Statistics.—The mean annual rainfall varies very greatly according to the locality. In England it varies from about 20 inches at Hunstanton in Cambridgeshire, to about 200 inches at Seathwaite in Cumberland; in India, from 2 or 3 inches in parts of Scinde, to 450 inches or more at Cherrapunji in the Eastern Himalayas.�2. Available Rainfall.—The area drained by a stream is called its “catchment area” or “basin.” The available rainfall in a catchment area is the total fall less the quantity which is evaporated or absorbed by vegetation. The evaporation does not chiefly take place directly from the surface. Rain sinks a short distance into the ground, and is subsequently evaporated. The available rainfall does not all flow directly into the streams. Some sinks deep into the ground and forms springs, and these ma�3. Measurement of Rainfall.—A rain-gauge should be in open ground and not sheltered by objects of any kind. The ordinary rain-gauge is a short cylinder. This is often connected by a tapering piece to a longer cylinder of smaller diameter. In this the rain is stored safely and is measured by a graduated rod. The measurement can be made more accurately than if the diameter was throughout the same as at the top. In other cases the water is poured out of the cylinder into a measuring vessel. If the�4. Influence of Forests and Vegetation.—When the ground is covered with vegetation, and especially forests, the humus or mould formed from leaves, etc., absorbs and retains moisture. It acts like a reservoir, so that the run-off takes place slowly and the denudation and erosion of the soil is checked. The roots of the trees or other vegetation also bind the soil together. Vegetation and forests thus mitigate the severity of floods and reduce the quantity of silt brought into the streams. They al�5. Heavy Falls in Short Periods.—When rain water, instead of being stored or utilised, has to be got rid of, it is of primary importance to estimate roughly—exact estimates are impossible—the greatest probable fall in a short time. This bears a rough ratio to the mean annual fall. The maximum observed falls in twenty-four hours range, in the United Kingdom, generally from ·05 to ·10 of the mean annual fall—but on one occasion the figure has been ·20,—and in the tropics from ·10 to ·25. Actual fi�1. Preliminary Remarks.—The information which is required concerning streams depends on the character of the stream and on the nature of the work which is to be done. For the present let it be supposed that the stream is large and perennial. Other kinds of streams will be dealt with in Arts. 6 and 7. In dealing with a large perennial stream it is nearly always necessary to know the approximate highest and lowest water-levels, and these can generally be ascertained by local inquiry, combined with�2. Stream Gauges.—Unless the stream being dealt with is an artificial one, it is unlikely that the flow in the reach with which the work is concerned will be uniform. The rise and fall of the water at one place cannot therefore be correctly inferred from those at another. It will be desirable to have two gauges, either read daily or else automatically, recording the water-level, one near each end of the reach concerned, with intermediate gauges if the reach is very long. If, in or near the reach�3. Plan and Sections.—Making a survey and plan, and laying down on it the lines for longitudinal and cross-sections, and taking levels for the sections, are ordinary operations of surveying. If any land is liable to be flooded, its boundaries should be shown on the plan and on some of the cross-sections. Unless the water is shallow, it is necessary to obtain the bed levels from the water-level by soundings, the level of a peg at the water-level having been obtained by levelling. All the sections�4. Discharge Observations.—For a large stream it is necessary to observe the discharges by taking cross-sections and measuring the velocity. If there is a sufficient range of water-levels, it will be possible to make actual observations of a sufficient number of discharges. If soundings cannot, owing to the depth or velocity, be taken at high water, they must be inferred from those previously taken, but this does not allow for changes in the channel, which are sometimes considerable and rapid. I�6. Small Streams.—Small streams will now be considered, those, for instance, which are too small to be navigable and which occasionally run dry or nearly dry. If the water of the stream is to be stored for water supply, power or irrigation purposes, full information as to discharges and silt carried will be required. If the stream is small enough the discharges can be ascertained by means of a weir of planks. The discharge is then known from the gauge readings. Cross-sections and large scale pla�7. Intermittent Streams.—In the case of large streams whose flow is intermittent, the information required will, as before, depend upon the circumstances. Such streams occur in many countries. The difficulty in obtaining information is often very great. To obtain figures of daily discharge a gauge must be set up in the stream and a register kept. The chief difficulty in an out-of-the-way place is likely to be the obtaining correct information as to the maximum discharge. Information, derived fro�1. Preliminary Remarks.—When flowing water carries solid substances in suspension, they are known as “silt.” Material is also moved by being rolled along the bed of the stream. The difference between silt and rolled material is one of degree and not of kind. Material of one kind may be rolled and carried alternately. The quantity of silt present in each cubic foot of water is called the “charge” of silt. Silt consists chiefly of mud and fine sand; rolled material of sand, gravel, shingle, and bo�2. Rolled Material.—If a number of bodies have similar shapes, and if D is the diameter of one of them and V the velocity of the water relatively to it, the rolling force is theoretically as V2 D2, and the resisting force or weight as D3. If these are just balanced, D varies as V2, or the diameters of similarly shaped bodies which can just be rolled are as V2 and their weights as V6. From practical observations, it seems that the diameters do not vary quite so rapidly as they would by the above�3. Materials carried in Suspension.—It has long been known that the scouring and transporting power of a stream increases with its velocity. Observations made by Kennedy have shown that its power to carry silt decreases as the depth of water increases (Min. Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. cxix.). The power is probably derived from the eddies which are produced at the bed. Every suspended particle tends to sink, if its specific gravity is greater than unity. It is prevented from sinking by the upward comp�4. Methods of Investigation.—The quantity of silt in water is found by taking specimens of the water and evaporating it or, if the silt is present in great quantity, leaving it to settle for twelve hours—an ounce of alum can be added for every 10 cubic feet of water to accelerate settlement—drawing off the water by a syphon, and heating the deposit to dry it. The deposit is then measured or weighed. It is best to weigh it. If clay is filled into a measure, the volume depends greatly on the manne�5. Quantity and Distribution of Silt.—The quantity of silt present in water varies enormously. Fine mud, even though sufficient to discolour the water, may be so small in volume that it only deposits when the water is still, and even then deposits slowly. In the river Tay, near Perth, the silt was found to be ordinarily 1/10,000 of the volume of water, and at low water only 1/28,000. In the river Sutlej at Rupar, near where it issues from the Himalayas, the silt in the flood season is extremely�6. Practical Formulæ and Figures.—A stream which carries silt generally rolls materials along its bed. The proportion between the quantities of material rolled and carried is never known, and this makes it impossible to frame an exact formula applicable to such cases, but Kennedy, from his observations on canals fully charged with the heavy silt and fine sand usually found in Indian rivers near the hills, arrived at the empirical formula for critical velocities V = ·84 D·64 The observations were�7. Action on the Sides of a Channel.—It has been seen that the laws of silting and scour on the bed of a channel depend on the ratio of the depth to the velocity. The same laws probably hold good in the case of a gently shelving bank, so that here again V ought to vary as D·64. The velocity near the angle where the slope meets the water surface seems to decrease faster than D·64. At all events, silt tends to deposit in the angle and the slope to become steep.�8. Action at Bends.—At a bend, owing to the action of centrifugal force and to cross-currents caused thereby, there is a deposit near the convex bank and a corresponding deepening—unless the bed is too hard to be scoured—near the concave bank. The water-level at the concave bank is slightly higher than at the convex bank. The greatest velocity instead of being in mid-stream is nearer the concave bank.�9. General Tendencies of Streams.—Since the velocity is greater as the area of the cross-section is less, a stream always tends to scour where narrow or shallow, and to silt where wide or deep. The cross-section thus tends to become uniform in size. Suppose two cross-sections to be equal in size but different in shape. The velocities of the two sections will be equal. The tendency of the bed to silt will (Art. 6) be greater at the deeper section and, when silting has occurred on the bed, the sec�1. Preliminary Remarks.—Most important works which affect the régime of a stream have some effect on its silting or scouring action, but this is not generally their chief object. Such works will be dealt with in due course, and the effects which they are likely to produce on silting or scouring will be mentioned. In the present chapter only those works and measures will be considered whose chief object is to cause a stream to alter its silting or scouring action. It does not matter, so far as th�3. Production of Silt Deposit.—Works or measures for causing silt deposit may be undertaken in order to cause silt deposit in specific places where it will be useful, or in order to free the water from silt. Sometimes both objects are combined.�4. Arrangements at Bifurcations.—At a bifurcation, as where a branch takes off from a canal, it is possible to reduce the quantity of rolled material entering the canal by raising its bed or constructing a weir or “sill” in its head. This arrangement may have great effect in excluding boulders, shingle, or gravel. As regards rolled sand, it has much less effect than might be expected (Chap. IV., Art. 2). If the canal is reduced in width (fig. 5) there will be eddies below the bed level of the br�5. A Canal with Headworks in a River.—In the case of a canal taking off from a river and provided with complete headworks, it is possible to do a great deal more. The case of the Sirhind Canal, already referred to (Chap. IV., Arts. 5 and 6), is a notable example. The canal (fig. 6) is more than 200 feet wide, the full depth of water 10 feet, and the full discharge about 7000 cubic feet per second. In 1893 when the irrigation had developed, and it became necessary to run high supplies in the summ�6. Protection of the Bed.—It is possible to afford direct protection from scour to the bed of a stream by constructing walls across it, but unless the walls are near together the protection will not be effective. An arrangement used in some streams in Switzerland consists of tree trunks secured by short piles and resting on brushwood. But as long as the walls are not raised above the bed they cannot entirely stop scour, unless extremely close together. If raised above the bed they form a series�1. Preliminary Remarks.—The protection of a length of bank from scour may be effected by spurs, which are works projecting into the stream at intervals, or by a continuous lining of the bank. A spur forms an obstruction to the stream (Chap. IV., Art. 1), and when constructed, or even partly constructed, the scour near its end may be very severe, even though there may be little contraction of the stream as a whole. If the bed is soft a hole is scoured out. Into this hole the spur keeps subsiding,�2. Spurs.—A spur may be made of—�3. Continuous Lining of the Bank.—The lining or protection of a bank may be of stone or brick pitching (figs. 12 and 13), loose stone (fig. 14), fascines (fig. 15), turfing, plantations, brushwood, or of other materials laid on the slopes. Before protecting a bank it is best to remove irregularities and bring it to a regular line. This can generally be done most easily by filling in hollows, but sometimes it is done by cutting off projections. It is also necessary to make the side slope uniform.�4. Heavy Stone Pitching with Apron.—On the great shifting rivers of India a system of bank protection is adopted, consisting of a pitched slope with an apron (fig. 22). The system is used chiefly in connection with railway bridges or weirs, but it has been used in one instance, that of Dera Ghazi Khan, for the protection of the bank near a town. When, as is usual, the flood-level is higher than the river bank, an artificial bank is made. In any case the bank is properly aligned. The pitching has�1. Diversions.—When a stream is permanently diverted the new course is generally shorter than the old one, and the diversion is then often called a cut-off. The first result of a cut-off is a lowering of the water-level upstream and a tendency to scour there, and to silt downstream of the cut-off. Fig. 23 shows the longitudinal section of a stream after a cut-off A B has been made. The bed tends to assume the position shown by the dotted line. If both the diversion and the old channel are to rem�2. Closure of a Flowing Stream.—The closure of a flowing stream by means of a dam is usually attended with some difficulty and sometimes with enormous difficulty. There may be little trouble in running out dams from both banks for a certain distance, but as soon as the gap between the dams becomes much less than the original width of the stream, the water on the upstream side is headed up and there is a rush of water through the gap, which tends to deeply scour the bed and to undermine the dams.�3. Instances of Closures of Streams.—In 1904 the Colorado River broke into the Salton Sink—a valley covering 4000 square miles. Unsuccessful attempts were made to close the stream by two rows of piles with willows and sandbags between them, by a gate 200 feet long, supported on 500 piles, and by twelve gates each 12 feet wide. A “rock-fill” dam was then constructed on a mattress 100 feet wide and 1·5 feet thick. The river, which was 600 feet wide, broke through, but was stopped by the constructi�1. Preliminary Remarks.—When a stream is trained or regularised it is generally made narrower, but sometimes narrow places have to be widened. Deepening has also very frequently to be effected. The object of training is generally the improvement of navigation, but it may be the prevention of silt deposit. Some natural arms of rivers which form the head reaches of canals in the Punjab are wide and tortuous, and they are sometimes trained. Training often includes straightening or the cutting-off o�3. Reduction of Width.—If a channel which is to be narrowed is not a wide one, the reduction in width can be effected by any of the processes described under bank protection (Chap. VI.). But in a wide channel, reduction of the width by any direct process is generally impracticable. The expense would generally be prohibitive. Earth, if filled in, is liable to be washed away unless protected all along. Reduction in the width of a large channel is nearly always effected either by groynes (fig. 26)�4. Alteration of Depth or Water-Level.—When the width of a stream is altered, the depth of water—the gradient being supposed to be unchanged—must alter in the opposite manner. A narrowing of the channel by training necessitates an increase in the depth of water, and the same remark applies if an arm of the stream is closed. The increase in depth may be effected either by raising the water-level or by lowering the bed—as may be convenient—or both. If the bed is to be lowered and is of hard clay,�1. Banks.—All banks which have to hold up water should be carefully made. The earth should be deposited in layers and all clods broken up. In high banks the layers should be moistened and rammed. The dotted lines in fig. 29 show two possible courses of percolation water. The vertical height—from the water-level to the ground outside the bank,—divided by the length of the line of percolation is the hydraulic gradient, as in the case of a pipe, and this gradient is more or less a measure of the te�2. Navigation Canals.—A navigation canal is sometimes all on one level, but generally different reaches are at different levels, the change being made by means of locks. A “lateral” canal—the most common kind—runs along a river valley more or less parallel to the river. It is frequently cheaper to construct such a canal than to canalise the river. A “summit” canal crosses over a ridge and connects two valleys. A navigation canal requires a supply of water to make good the losses which occur by l�3. Locks.—An ordinary lock is shown in fig. 29A. The space above the head gates is called the “head bay,” and that below the tail gates the “tail bay.” The floor of the lock is often an inverted arch. Sometimes the floor is of cast-iron. The “lift wall” is generally a horizontal arch. The gates when closed press at their lower ends against the “mitre sills”; and the vertical “mitre posts” at the edges of the gates meet and are pressed together. The gate, in opening and closing, revolves above th�4. Other Artificial Channels.—The method of calculating the discharges of channels in which water is to flow is a question of hydraulics. The principles and rules to be followed, in the design of earthen channels, have been stated in Chap. IV., Art. 6, and in Chap. VIII., Art. 5. The design of banks has been dealt with in Art. 1 of this Chapter. For conveying water for the supply of towns, or for other purposes, masonry conduits are often used. A usual form is shown in fig. 30. The curving of th�1. Preliminary Remarks.—Every structure which interferes at all with a stream causes an abrupt change in the stream (Chap. IV., Art. 1). At an abrupt change there are always eddies, and these have a peculiar scouring effect. This effect is greatest where the velocity of the stream is abruptly reduced as where, for instance, after being contracted by an obstruction, it expands again or where it falls over a weir or issues from a sluice opening. In all cases of this kind the protection of the stru�2. General Design of a Weir.—Unless the bed and sides of the channel are of rock, a weir has side walls and rests on a strong floor or “apron.” These need not extend far upstream, but must extend some way downstream because of the scouring action of the water.11 A common type of weir is shown in fig. 32. The downstream face is made sloping, so that the water may not fall vertically and strike the floor below the weir. The thickness and length of the floor depend on the volume of water to be pass�3. Weirs on Sandy or Porous Soil.—If the channel is very soft or sandy the weir may be built on one or more lines of wells. The wells are not so much to support the weir as to form a curtain and prevent streams, due to the hydraulic gradient A E (fig. 33), from forming under the structure and gradually removing the soil. It is assumed in the case represented by the figure that the maximum head occurs when the downstream channel is dry. Any removal of soil from under the weir may cause its destru�4. Various Types of Weirs.—The type of weir shown in fig. 32 may be varied by steepening or flattening the slopes of one or both faces. Flattening increases the cost but gives a greater spread for the foundations. It may, however, be combined with a decrease in the width of the crest. Flattening of the downstream slope reduces the shock of the water on the floor, but the slope itself, especially the lower portion, has to stand a good deal of wear, and the length exposed to this is increased. Fla�5. Weirs with Sluices.—The long weirs built across Indian rivers below the heads of irrigation canals generally extend across the greater part of the river bed. In the remaining part—generally the part nearest the canal head—there is, instead of the weir, a set of openings or “under-sluices” (fig. 40) with piers having iron grooves in which gates can slide vertically. The piers may be twenty feet apart and five feet thick. The gates are worked by one or more “travellers,” which run on rails on t�6. Falling Shutters.—In Thénard’s system, first used in France, a shutter (fig. 43) is hinged at its lower edge and is held up by a strut. When the lower end of the strut is pushed aside it slides downstream and the shutter falls flat. To enable the shutter to be raised again an upstream shutter, which ordinarily lies flat and is held down by a bolt, is released, and it is then raised by the current to the extent permitted by a chain attached to it. The downstream shutter is then raised. Thénard�7. Adjustable Weirs.—Drum weirs, invented by Desfontaines, have been used in France and Germany. Two paddles (fig. 47) are fixed on a horizontal axis and can turn through about 90°, the lower paddle, which should be slightly the larger, working in a “drum,” which is roofed over and can, by means of sluices, be placed in communication with either the upper or lower reach of the stream. According as the upper paddle is to be raised or lowered, water is admitted from the upper reach above or below�8. Remarks on Sluices.—In all kinds of sluice openings or regulators, the principles of design as regards protection of the bed and sides, splaying and curving of walls and piers, thickness of floor, and prevention of the formation of streams under the structure are the same as laid down for weirs.�1. Bridges.—Bridges are of many kinds. In this book only those parts of them are considered which are exposed to the stream. If a bridge has piers, there must be some disturbance of the water. The disturbance will be least when the area of the waterway of the bridge is at least as great as that of the stream, and when its shape is as nearly as possible the same. For small streams, a single span clearing the whole stream may be adopted, especially when the channel is of soft material, but for a l�2. Syphons and Culverts.—Syphons are used to pass drainage channels or other streams under canals or other lines of communication. In the case of a masonry syphon under a stream which may be dry while the syphon is full, the weight of the arch and its solid load must be not less than the upward pressure of the water passing through the syphon. The channel sometimes has a vertical drop at the upstream side (fig. 51) and a slope at the downstream side. The slope enables any solid materials to be c�3. Training Works.—The object of the upstream and downstream protections already described (Chap. X.) is to prevent damage to the structure owing to the disturbance caused by the structure itself. When a river is given to shifting its course (Chap. IV., Art. 9) and cutting away its banks, protection of another kind is required. The stream, if left to itself, may cut away one bank upstream of the structure for a long distance, and eventually damage, or destroy by undermining, the upstream pitchin�1. Preliminary Remarks.—Arts. 2 and 3 of this Chapter deal with the calculation of flood discharges, Art. 2 dealing with small streams, in which the water has to be got rid of, and Art. 3 with large streams. The remaining articles discuss the methods of predicting floods and of preventing them from doing damage. When the discharge figures have been arrived at in any case, the necessary masonry works can be designed in accordance with the principles described in Chaps. X. and XI. For remarks rega�2. Small Streams.—In dealing with small streams, such as branch drains or natural streams not far from their sources, the engineer is concerned only with their maximum discharges. He has to design culverts, bridges or syphons to pass the streams under roads or other works, or to design channels or waste weirs for them. In a settled country there may be already some works in existence on the same stream, and these may form a guide, or it may be possible to obtain local information as to the heigh�3. Rivers.—It is possible to apply the methods of the preceding article to large catchment areas, but the results would be quite unreliable. If the calculations were made so as to err on the side of safety, the resulting discharges would often be enormous. The following table shows some figures based on actual flood discharges. None of the localities have excessive rainfalls, though most are liable to occasional very heavy falls. In mountainous districts in the North of England and in Scotland t�4. Prediction of Floods.—At any place high up on the course of a stream, the occurrence of a flood can often be predicted when rain storms—often accompanied in the tropics by lightning—can be seen to be occurring towards the sources of the stream. For any station lower down the stream and for precise information in any case, the readings of gauges higher up the stream can be telegraphed. If the station is at a great distance from the gauge and if there is railway communication, the readings can�5. Prevention of Floods.—The extended use of field drains has, in recent years, done much to increase the severity of floods in England and other countries. One method of mitigating or preventing floods is the construction of reservoirs for storing the water. Reservoirs locally known as “washes,” formed by setting back the embankments, exist on the Fen rivers. One wash, on the Nene, below Peterborough, is 12 miles long and half a mile wide and is filled, in floods, to a depth of 7 feet and holds�6. Lowering the Water-Level.—The water-level of a given length of stream can be lowered by lowering the bed, widening the channel or straightening the channel. The efficiency of these processes is in the order named. As stated in Chap. I., Art. 4, the alteration to the channel must in any case be continued to some point downstream of the reach under consideration. Let the channel be supposed to be of “shallow” section with sloping sides. Let W be the mean width, D the depth, and S the slope. Let�7. Flood Embankments.—A flood embankment may be close to the edge of the river or it may be set back. If set back it need not follow all the windings of the stream. The setting back of an embankment gives an increased waterway to the stream during floods, and therefore a lower flood-level, but the effect of this is trifling in cases where the depth of the water on the flooded land is small, especially if such land is covered with vegetation, or is otherwise much obstructed. Setting back is gener�1. Reservoirs.—The object of a reservoir is to store water for town supply or for irrigation or other purposes. Reservoirs for the water supply of towns are divided into “impounding reservoirs” and “service reservoirs,” the latter being of comparatively small size, and their object being to store, near to the town, a supply sufficient for a short period. Instead of one impounding reservoir there may be several, formed by various dams and one discharging into another. When a reservoir is mentione�2. Capacity of Reservoirs.—A reservoir depends for its supply on the yield of a particular valley or valleys which form its catchment area, and the capacity of the reservoir or reservoirs can be altered by altering the height or number of the dams. The need for a reservoir is entirely owing to the inequality in the distribution of the rainfall. If the rain fell in equal quantities week by week, the daily fluctuations could probably be equalised by the service reservoirs. The impounding reservoir�3. Earthen Dams.—Before an earthen dam is made, any soft soil on the site should be removed and the ground downstream of the site should be drained. A few trenches, running parallel to the axis of the dam, can be dug so as to give the dam a hold, though there is never any danger of its being moved horizontally by the thrust of the water. If the ground has a side-long slope it should be benched as shown in fig. 59. The front slope of an earthen dam is generally about 3 to 1, and the rear slope ab�4. Masonry Dams.—For heights much exceeding 110 or 120 feet a masonry dam may be cheaper than an earthen dam; and in case a flood occurs while work is in progress the masonry might suffer little injury, while earthwork might be swept away completely. Masonry dams are usually built of random rubble masonry with faces of dressed stone. Such masonry weighs about 140 lbs. per cubic foot, and is ordinarily quite safe when subjected to pressures of 20 tons per square foot, but in a masonry dam a high�1. Tides.—The tides or “tidal waves” are caused by the attraction of the moon and the sun. The phenomena are complex, and a full discussion of their causes need not be given here. When the tide rises it is said to “flow,” and it is called the flood tide; when it falls it is called the ebb tide. The period between one tide and the next, e.g. from high water to high water, is about twelve hours, twenty-five minutes. At a spring tide the range of the tide is greater than usual; at a neap tide less.�2. Tidal Rivers.—Let A B (fig. 66) be the surface of the lower part or mouth of a river, supposed to be of uniform width, and let B be the mean sea-level. As the tide rises to D the water of the river is headed up and assumes the line A D. When the tide falls to F there is a draw, the river surface taking the line A F. If the rise of the tide B H is so great that the discharge of the river cannot keep pace with it, so as to fill up the whole space between A and H to the level of H, there will be�3. Works in Tidal Rivers.—If any works are required in the tidal portion of a river, the principles to be followed in designing them are the same as if the river was non-tidal. All that has been said in Chap. VIII., Arts. 1 to 3, applies to them. The river may be straightened or trained or dredged. Generally training and dredging are combined. Any dredging in the portion of the river nearest the sea will not, of course, alter the water levels near the mouth, but it will alter them further up. Th�4. Tidal Estuaries.—If, instead of a river of uniform width, there is an estuary whose width increases steadily towards the sea so that it is funnel-shaped, the conditions described in Art. 2 are modified. An estuary is formed first by the waves of the sea, which wear away the angles at the mouth of the river and allow the tide to enter in greater volume, and then by the flow and ebb of the tides. The slope of the bed of the estuary is usually much flatter than that of the river, and the water s�5. Works in Tidal Estuaries.—Estuaries, when shallow, offer great facilities for training. It used at one time to be said that any change which reduces the volume of tidal flow must be injurious. It would be injurious to restrict the mouth of the estuary, unless it were exceptionally wide, and leave the rest untouched. If the whole estuary is narrowed, and a suitable funnel shape preserved, the width to be kept open is, relatively to the size of the mouth, no greater than before, and the tide ma�1. Deltaic Rivers.—When a river flows into a tideless sea its silt deposits and forms a shoal or bar. This shoal may in time extend and rise up to the water-level. The current of the river makes its way through it in various directions, and in this way a delta is formed and constantly extends seawards. This flattens the slope of the lower portions of the river, and causes raising of the bed in the reaches upstream, and this again may cause the water to break out further upstream and form fresh c�2. Other Rivers.—It often happens that the materials—sand, gravel, and shingle—of which a sea beach is composed shift gradually along the shore. This is known as “littoral drift.” It is by some supposed to be due to the action of the tides, and by others to the action of waves, the drift taking place in the direction of the prevailing winds, excluding those which are off shore. 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