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Title: Travels into North America, Volume 1 (of 3)

Author: Pehr Kalm

Translator: Johann Reinhold Forster

Release date: October 10, 2023 [eBook #71849]

Language: English

Original publication: Warrington / London: William Eyres

Credits: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS INTO NORTH AMERICA, VOLUME 1 (OF 3) ***





                                TRAVELS
                                 INTO
                             NORTH AMERICA;

                               CONTAINING

                        Its Natural History, and
                    A circumstantial Account of its
                Plantations and Agriculture in general,

                                WITH THE
                       CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL AND
                    COMMERCIAL STATE OF THE COUNTRY,

              The MANNERS of the INHABITANTS, and several
           curious and IMPORTANT REMARKS on various Subjects.

                             By PETER KALM,

       Professor of Oeconomy in the University of Aobo in Swedish
     Finland, and Member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences.

                        TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH

                    By JOHN REINHOLD FORSTER, F.A.S.


   Enriched with a Map, several Cuts for the Illustration of Natural
                  History, and some additional Notes.

                                VOL. I.

                              WARRINGTON:
                       Printed by WILLIAM EYRES.

                                MDCCLXX.









                           TO THE HONOURABLE

                           DAINES BARRINGTON,


    One of his Majesty’s Justices of the Grand Sessions for
    the Counties of Anglesey, Caernarvon, and Merioneth.


    SIR,

    I Presume to prefix your name to a performance which will in
    some measure display to the British nation, the circumstances
    of a country which is so happy as to be under its protection.

    Every lover of knowledge, especially of natural history, must
    be sensible of your zealous endeavours to promote every branch
    of it. It was my great happiness to fall within your notice,
    and to receive very substantial and seasonable favours from
    your patronage and recommendations. I shall ever remain mindful
    of your generosity and humanity towards me, but must lament
    that I have no other means of expressing my gratitude than by
    this publick acknowledgment.

    Accept then, Dear Sir, my earnest wishes for your prosperity,
    and think me with the truest esteem,

        Your most obliged,
            and obedient
                humble Servant,

                    John Reinhold Forster.

    Warrington,
    July 25th. 1770.









PREFACE.


The present Volume of Professor Kalm’s Travels through North America,
is originally written in the Swedish language, but was immediately
after translated into the German by the two Murray’s, both of whom are
Swedes, and one a pupil of Dr. Linnæus, and therefore we may be sure
that this translation corresponds exactly with the original.

Baron Sten Charles Bielke, Vice president of the Court of Justice in
Finland, was the first who made a proposal to the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Stockholm, to send an able man to the northern parts of
Siberia and Iceland, as places which are partly under the same latitude
with Sweden, and to make there such observations and collections of
seeds and plants, as would improve the Swedish husbandry, gardening,
manufactures, arts and sciences. Dr. Linnæus found the proposal just,
but he thought that a journey through North America would be yet of a
more extensive utility, than that through the before-mentioned
countries; for the plants of America were then little known, and not
scientifically described, and by several trials, it seemed probable
that the greatest part of the North American plants, would bear very
well the Swedish winters; and what was more important, a great many
American plants promised to be very useful in husbandry and physic.

Thus far this journey was a mere scheme; but as Captain Triewald, a man
well known for his abilities in England, gave his Observations on the
Cultivation of Silk in a series of Memoirs to the Royal Academy of
Sciences, and mentioned therein a kind of mulberry tree, which was
discovered by Dr. Linnæus, and which bore the rigours of the Swedish
climate as well as a fir or pine tree; this circumstance revived the
proposal of such a journey in the year 1745. Count Tessin, a nobleman
of established merit both in the political and learned world, becoming
president of the Royal Academy, it was unanimously agreed upon to send
Professor Kalm to North America. The expences were at first a great
obstacle; but the Royal Academy wrote to the three universities to
assist them in this great and useful undertaking. Aobo sent first her
small contribution, Lund had nothing to spare, but Upsala made up this
deficiency by a liberal contribution.

Count Piper was intreated to give a family exhibition to Mr. Kalm,
which he readily promised, but as the Academy had obtained from the
convocation of the university of Upsala and the magistrates of
Stockholm, another exhibition of the family of Helmsfield for Mr. Kalm,
Count Piper refused to grant his exhibition, as being contrary to the
statutes of the university and without any precedent, that one person
should enjoy two exhibitions. The present king of Sweden being then
prince royal, successor to the throne, and chancellor of the
university, wrote to the convocation, and expressed his wishes to have
from the treasury of the university for so useful a purpose, about 1000
plates, or about 150l. sterling. The university complied generously
with the desire of her chancellor, and gave orders that the money
should be paid to the Royal Academy. The board for promoting
manufactures gave 300 plates, or about 45l. Mr. Kalm spent in this
journey his salary, and besides very near 130l. of his own fortune, so
that at his return he found himself obliged to live upon a very small
pittance. The rest of the expences the Academy made up from her own
fund.

We on purpose have given this detail from Mr. Kalm’s long preface, to
shew the reader with what public spirit this journey has been supported
in a country where money is so scarce, and what a patriotic and
laudable ardor for the promotion of sciences in general, and especially
of natural history and husbandry animates the universities, the public
boards, and even the private persons, in this cold climate, which goes
so far, that they chuse rather to spend their own private fortunes,
than to give up so beneficial and useful a scheme. We have the same
instance in Dr. Hasselquist, who with a sickly and consumptive
constitution, went to Asia Minor, Egypt and Palestine, and collected
such great riches in new plants and animals, that Dr. Linnæus’s system
would never have contained so many species, had he not made use of
these treasures, which the queen of Sweden generously bought by paying
the debts of Dr. Hasselquist, who died in his attempt to promote
natural history. The Reverend Mr. Osbeck in his voyage to China, made
an infinite number of useful and interesting observations at the
expence of his whole salary, and published them by the contributions of
his parish. The Reverend Mr. Toreen died by the fatigues of the same
voyage, and left his letters published along with Osbeck, as a monument
of his fine genius, and spirit for promoting natural history. We here
look upon the expences as trifling, but they are not so in Sweden, and
therefore are certainly the best monuments to the honour of the nation
and the great Linnæus, who in respect to natural history is the primum
mobile of that country.

Professor Kalm having obtained leave of his Majesty to be absent from
his post as professor, and having got a passport, and recommendations
to the several Swedish ministers at the courts of London, Paris,
Madrid, and at the Hague, in order to obtain passports for him in their
respective states, set out from Upsala, the 16th. of October 1747,
accompanied by Lars Yungstrœm, a gardener well skilled in the knowledge
of plants and mechanics, and who had at the same time a good hand for
drawing, whom he took into his service. He then set sail from
Gothenburgh, the 11th. of December but a violent hurricane obliged the
ship he was in to take shelter in the harbour of Grœmstad in Norway,
from which place he made excursions to Arendal and Christiansand. He
went again to sea February the 8th. 1748, and arrived at London the
17th. of the same month. He staid in England till August 15th. in which
interval of time he made excursions to Woodford in Essex, to little
Gaddesden in Hertfordshire, where William Ellis, a man celebrated for
his publications in husbandry lived, but whose practical husbandry Mr.
Kalm found not to be equal to the theory laid down in his writings; he
likewise saw Ivinghoe in Buckinghamshire, Eaton and several other
places, and all the curiosities and gardens in and about London: at
last he went on board a ship, and traversed the ocean to Philadelphia
in Pensylvania, which was formerly called New Sweden, where he arrived
September the 26th. The rest of that year he employed in collecting
seeds of trees and plants, and sending them up to Sweden; and in
several excursions in the environs of Philadelphia. The winter he
passed among his countrymen at Raccoon in New Jersey. The next year
1749, Mr. Kalm went through New Jersey and New York along the river
Hudson to Albany, and from thence, after having crossed the lakes of
St. George and Champlain, to Montreal and Quebec, he returned that very
year against winter to Philadelphia, and sent a new cargo of seeds,
plants and curiosities to Sweden. In the year 1750, Mr. Kalm saw the
western parts of Pensylvania and the coast of New Jersey; Yungstrœm
staid in the former province all the summer for the collection of
seeds, and Prof. Kalm in the mean time passed New York and the blue
mountains, went to Albany, then along the river Mohawk to the Iroquois
nations, where he got acquainted with the Mohawk’s, Oneida’s,
Tuskarora’s, Onandaga’s and Kayugaw’s. He then viewed and navigated the
great lake Ontario, and saw the celebrated fall at Niagara. In his
return from his summer expedition, he crossed the blue mountains in a
different place, and in October again reached Philadelphia.

In the year 1751, the 13th. of February, he went at Newcastle on board
a ship for England, and after a passage subject to many dangers in the
most dreadful hurricanes, he arrived March the 27th. in the Thames, and
two days after in London. He took passage for Gothenburgh May the 5th.
and was the 16th. of the same month at the place of his destination,
and the 13th. of June he again arrived at Stockholm, after having been
on this truly useful expedition three years and eight months. He
afterwards returned again to his place of professor at Aobo, where in a
small garden of his own, he cultivates many hundreds of American
plants, as there is not yet a public botanical garden for the use of
the university, and he with great expectation wishes to see what plants
will bear the climate, and bear good and ripe seeds so far north. He
published the account of his journey by intervals, for want of
encouragement, and fearing the expences of publishing at once in a
country where few booksellers are found, and where the author must very
often embrace the business of bookseller, in order to reimburse himself
for the expences of his publication. He published in his first volume
observations on England, and chiefly on its husbandry, where he with
the most minute scrupulousness and detail, entered into the very
minutiæ of this branch of his business for the benefit of his
countrymen, and this subject he continued at the beginning of the
second volume. A passage cross the Atlantic ocean is a new thing to
Swedes, who are little used to it, unless they go in the few East India
ships of their country. Every thing therefore was new to Mr. Kalm, and
he omitted no circumstance unobserved which are repeated in all the
navigators from the earlier times down to our own age. It would be a
kind of injustice to the public, to give all this at large to the
reader. All that part describing England and its curiosities and
husbandry we omitted. The particulars of the passage from England to
Pensylvania we abridged; no circumstance interesting to natural history
or to any other part of literature has been omitted. And from his
arrival at Philadelphia, we give the original at large, except where we
omitted some trifling circumstances, viz. the way of eating oysters,
the art of making apple dumplings, and some more of the same nature,
which struck that Swedish gentleman with their novelty.

Mr. Kalm makes use of the Swedish measure; its foot is to the English
foot, as 1134 to 1350. For his meteorological observations, he employed
the thermometer of Prof. Celsius generally made use of in Sweden, and
his was of Celsius’s own making; the interval from the point of
freezing to the point of boiling water, is equally divided in this
thermometer into 100 parts. In the names of plants, we have chiefly
employed after his directions the Linnæan names in the last edition of
his Spec. Plantarum, and Systema Naturæ, Vol. 2. But as his
descriptions of animals, plants, and minerals are very short, he
promises to give them at large some time hence in a Latin work. He
excuses the negligence of his stile, from the time in which he
methodised his observations, which was commonly at night, after being
fatigued with the business of the preceding day, when his spirits were
almost exhausted, and he, incapable of that sprightliness which
commends so many curious performances of that nature.

He gives you his observations as they occurred day after day, which
makes him a faithful relater, notwithstanding it takes away all
elegance of style, and often occasions him to make very sudden
transitions from subjects very foreign to one another. This defect we
will endeavour to supply by a very copious index at the end of the
whole work, rather than derange the author’s words, which are the more
to be relied on, as being instantly committed to paper warm from his
reflections.

At last he arms himself with a very noble indifference against the
criticism of several people, founded on the great aim he had in view by
his performance, which was no less than public utility. This he looks
upon as the true reward of his pains and expences.

These are the contents of his long preface. We have nothing to add, but
that we intend to go on in this work as soon as possible, hoping to be
supported and encouraged in this undertaking, by a nation which is the
possessor of that great continent, a great part of which is here
accurately and impartially described, especially at this time when
American affairs attract the attention of the public.

We intend to join for the better illustration of the work, a map and
drawings of American birds and animals which were not in the original.
They will be copied from original drawings and real birds and animals
from North America, which we have access to, and must therefore give to
this translation a superiority above the original and the German
translation.

An encourager of this work proposed it as an improvement to the
translation of Kalm’s travels, to add in the margin the paging of the
original, as by this means recourse would be had easily to the
quotations made by Dr. Linnæus. We would very readily have complied
with this desideratum, had we had the Swedish edition of this work at
hand, or had the work not been too far advanced at the time we got this
kind hint: however this will be remedied by a copious index, which will
certainly appear at the end of the whole work.

As we have not yet been able to procure a compleat list of the
subscribers and encouragers of this undertaking, we choose rather to
postpone it, than to give an imperfect one: at the same time we assure
the public, that it shall certainly appear in one of the subsequent
volumes.

We find it necessary here to mention, that as many articles in Mr.
Kalm’s travels required illustrations, the publisher has taken the
liberty to join here and there some notes, which are marked at the end
with F. The other notes not thus marked were kindly communicated by the
publisher’s friends.

Lastly, we take this opportunity to return our most sincere thanks in
this public manner to the ladies and gentlemen, who have generously in
various ways exerted themselves in promoting the publication of these
useful remarks of an impartial, accurate and judicious foreigner, on a
country which is at present so much the object of public deliberation
and private conversation.









PETER KALM’s TRAVELS.


August the 5th. 1748.

I with my servant Lars Yungstrœm (who joined to his abilities as
gardener, a tolerable skill in mechanics and drawing) went at Gravesend
on board the Mary Gally, Captain Lawson, bound for Philadelphia; and
though it was so late as six o’clock in the afternoon, we weighed
anchor and sailed a good way down the Thames before we again came to
anchor.

August the 6th. Very early in the morning we resumed our voyage, and
after a few hours sailing we came to the mouth of the Thames, where we
turned into the channel and sailed along the Kentish coast, which
consists of steep and almost perpendicular chalk hills, covered at the
top with some soil and a fine verdure, and including strata of flints,
as it frequently is found in this kind of chalk-hills in the rest of
England. And we were delighted in viewing on them excellent corn
fields, covered for the greatest part with wheat, then ripening.

At six o’clock at night, we arrived at Deal, a little well known town,
situate at the entrance of a bay exposed to the southern and easterly
winds. Here commonly the outward bound ships provide themselves with
greens, fresh victuals, brandy, and many more articles. This trade, a
fishery, and in the last war the equipping of privateers, has enriched
the inhabitants.

August the 7th. When the tide was out, I saw numbers of fishermen
resorting to the sandy shallow places, where they find round small
eminences caused by the excrements of the log worms, or sea worms,
(Lumbrici marini. Linn.) who live in the holes leading to these
hillocks, sometimes eighteen inches deep, and they are then dug out
with a small three tacked iron fork and used as baits.

August the 8th. At three o’clock we tided down the channel, passed
Dover, and saw plainly the opinion of the celebrated Camden in his
Britannia confirmed, that here England had been formerly joined to
France and Flanders by an isthmus. Both shores form here two opposite
points; and both are formed of the same chalk hills, which have the
same configuration, so that a person acquainted with the English coasts
and approaching those of Picardy afterwards, without knowing them to be
such, would certainly take them to be the English ones. [1]

August the 9th–12th. We tided and alternately sailed down the channel,
and passed Dungness, Fairlight, the Isle of Wight, Portsmouth, the
Peninsula of Portland and Bolthead, a point behind which Plymouth lies;
during all which time we had very little wind.

August the 13th. Towards night we got out of the English channel into
the Bay of Biscay.

August the 14th. We had contrary wind, and this increased the rolling
of the ship, for it is generally remarked that the Bay of Biscay has
the greatest and broadest waves, which are of equal size with those
between America and Europe; they are commonly half an English mile in
length, and have a height proportionable to it. The Baltic and the
German ocean has on the contrary short and broken waves.

Whenever an animal is killed on board the ship, the sailors commonly
hang some fresh pieces of meat for a while into the sea, and it is
said, it then keeps better.

August the 15th. The same swell of the sea still continued, but the
waves began to smooth, and a foam swimming on them was said to forebode
in calm weather, a continuance of the same for some days.

About noon a north easterly breeze sprung up, and in the afternoon it
blew more, and this gave us a fine spectacle; for the great waves
rolled the water in great sheets, in one direction, and the north
easterly wind curled the surface of these waves quite in another. By
the beating and dashing of the waves against one another, with a more
than ordinary violence, we could see that we passed a current, whose
direction the captain could not determine.

August the 16th–21st. The same favourable breeze continued to our great
comfort and amazement, for the captain observed that it was very
uncommon to meet with an easterly or north-easterly wind between Europe
and the Azores (which the sailors call the Western Islands) for more
than two days together; for the more common wind is here a westerly
one: but beyond the Azores they find a great variety of winds,
especially about this time of the year; nor do the westerly winds
continue long beyond these isles; and to this it is owing, that when
navigators have passed the Azores, they think they have performed one
half of the voyage, although in reality it be but one third part. These
isles come seldom in sight; for the navigators keep off them, on
account of the dangerous rocks under water surrounding them. Upon
observation and comparison of the journal, we found that we were in
forty-three deg. twenty-four min. north lat. and thirty and a half
degrees west long. from London.

August the 22d. About noon the captain assured us, that in twenty-four
hours we should have a south-west wind: and upon my enquiring into the
reasons of his foretelling this with certainty, he pointed at some
clouds in the south-west, whose points turned towards north-east, and
said they were occasioned by a wind from the opposite quarter. At this
time I was told we were about half way to Pensylvania.

August the 23d. About seven o’clock in the morning the expected
south-west wind sprung up, and soon accelerated our course so much,
that we went at the rate of eight knots an hour.

August the 24th. The wind shifted and was in our teeth. We were told by
some of the crew to expect a little storm, the higher clouds being very
thin and striped and scattered about the sky like parcels of combed
wool, or so many skains of yarn, which they said forebode a storm.
These striped clouds ran north-west and south-east, in the direction of
the wind we then had. Towards night the wind abated and we had a
perfect calm, which is a sign of a change of wind.

August the 25th. and 26th. A west wind sprung up and grew stronger and
stronger, so that at last the waves washed our deck.

August the 27th. In the morning we got a better wind, which went
through various points of the compass and brought on a storm from
north-east towards night.

Our captain told me an observation founded on long experience, viz.
that though the winds changed frequently in the Atlantic ocean,
especially in summer time, the most frequent however was the western,
and this accounts for the passage from America to Europe commonly being
shorter, than that from Europe to America. Besides this, the winds in
the Atlantic during summer are frequently partial, so that a storm may
rage on one part of it, and within a few miles of the place little or
no storm at all may be felt. In winter the winds are more constant,
extensive and violent; so that then the same wind reigns on the greater
part of the ocean for a good while, and causes greater waves than in
summer.

August the 30th. As I had observed the night before some strong flashes
of lightening without any subsequent clap of thunder, I enquired of our
captain, whether he could assign any reasons for it. He told me these
phœnomena were pretty common, and the consequence of a preceding heat
in the atmosphere; but that when lightenings were observed in winter,
prudent navigators were used to reef their sails, as they are by this
sign certain of an impendent storm; and so likewise in that season, a
cloud rising from the north-west, is an infallible forerunner of a
great tempest.

September the 7th. As we had the first day of the month contrary wind,
on the second it shifted to the north, was again contrary the third,
and fair the fourth and following days. The fifth we were in forty deg.
three min. north lat. and between fifty-three and fifty-four deg. west
long. from London.

Besides the common waves rolling with the wind, we met on the 4th. and
5th. inst. with waves coming from south-west, which the captain gave as
a mark of a former storm from that quarter in this neighbourhood.

September the 8th. We crossed by a moderate wind, a sea with the
highest waves we met on the whole passage, attributed by the captain to
the division between the great ocean and the inner American gulf; and
soon after we met with waves greatly inferior to those we observed
before.

September the 9th. In the afternoon we remarked that in some places the
colour of the sea (which had been hitherto of a deep blue) was changed
into a paler hue; some of these spots were narrow stripes of twelve or
fourteen fathoms breadth, of a pale green colour, which is supposed to
be caused by the sand, or as some say, by the weeds under water.

September the 12th. We were becalmed that day, and as we in this
situation observed a ship, which we suspected to be a Spanish
privateer, our fear was very great; but we saw some days after our
arrival at Philadelphia the same ship arrive, and heard that they
seeing us had been under the same apprehensions with ourselves.

September the 13th. Captain Lawson, who kept his bed for the greater
part of the voyage, on account of an indisposition, assured us
yesterday we were in all appearance very near America: but as the mate
was of a different opinion, and as the sailors could see no land from
the head of the mast, nor find ground by the lead, we steered on
directly towards the land. About three o’clock in the morning the
captain gave orders to heave the lead, and we found but ten fathom: the
second mate himself took the lead and called out ten and fourteen
fathoms, but a moment after the ship struck on the sand, and this shock
was followed by four other very violent ones. The consternation was
incredible; and very justly might it be so; for there were above eighty
persons on board, and the ship had but one boat: but happily our ship
got off again, after having been turned. At day break, which followed
soon after (for the accident happened half an hour past four) we saw
the continent of America within a Swedish mile before us: the coast was
whitish, low, and higher up covered with firs. We found out, that the
sand we struck on, lay opposite Arcadia in Maryland, in thirty-seven
deg. fifty min. North lat.

We coasted the shores of Maryland all the day, but not being able to
reach cape Hinlopen, where we intended to take a pilot on board, we
cruized all night before the bay of Delaware. The darkness of the night
made us expect a rain, but we found that only a copious fall of dew
ensued, which made our coats quite wet, and the pages of a book,
accidently left open on the deck, were in half an hours time after
sun-setting likewise wet, and we were told by the captain and the
sailors that both in England and in America a copious dew was commonly
followed by a hot and sultry day.

September the 14th. We saw land on our larboard in the west, which
appeared to be low, white, sandy, and higher up the country covered
with firs, cape Hinlopen is a head of land running into the sea from
the western shore, and has a village on it. The eastern shore belongs
here to New Jersey, and the western to Pensylvania. The bay of Delaware
has many sands, and from four to eleven fathom water.

The fine woods of oak, hiccory and firs covering both shores made a
fine appearance, and were partly employed in ship-building at
Philadelphia; for which purpose every year some English captains take a
passage in autumn to this town, and superintend the building of new
ships during winter, with which they go to sea next spring: and at this
time it was more usual than common, as the French and Spanish
privateers had taken many English merchant ships.

A little after noon we reached the mouth of Delaware river, which is
here about three English miles broad, but decreases gradually so much,
that it is scarcely a mile broad at Philadelphia.

Here we were delighted in seeing now and then between the woods some
farm houses surrounded with corn fields, pastures well-stocked with
cattle, and meadows covered with fine hay; and more than one sense was
agreeably affected, when the wind brought to us the finest effluvia of
odoriferous plants and flowers, or that of the fresh made hay: these
agreeable sensations and the fine scenery of nature on this continent,
so new to us, continued till it grew quite dark.

Here I will return to sea, and give the reader a short view of the
various occurrences belonging to Natural-History, during our crossing
the Ocean.

Of sea weeds (Fucus linn.) we saw August the 16th. and 17th. a kind
which had a similarity to a bunch of onions tied together, these
bunches were of the size of the fist, and of a white colour. Near the
coast of America within the American gulf, September the 11th. we met
likewise with several sea weeds, one species of which was called by the
sailors rock-weed; another kind looked like a string of pearls, and
another was white, about a foot long, narrow, every where equally wide
and quite strait. From August the 24th. to September the 11th. we saw
no other weeds, but those commonly going under the name of Gulf-weed,
because they are supposed to come from the gulf of Florida; others call
it Sargazo, and Dr. Linnæus, Fucus natans. Its stalk is very slender,
rotundato-angulated, and of a dark green, it has many branches and each
of them has numerous leaves disposed in a row, they are extremely thin,
are serrated, and are a line or a line and a half wide, so that they
bear a great resemblance to the leaves of Iceland-moss; their colour is
a yellowish green. Its fruit in a great measure resembles unripe
juniper berries, is round, greenish yellow, almost smooth on the
outside, and grows under the leaves on short footstalks, of two or
three lines length; under each leaf are from one to three berries, but
I never have seen them exceed that number. Some berries were small, and
when cut were quite hollow and consisted of a thin peel only, which is
calculated to communicate their buoyancy to the whole plant. The leaves
grow in proportion narrower, as they approach the extremities of the
branches: their upper sides are smooth, the ribs are on the under
sides, and there likewise appear small roots of two, three or four
lines length. I was told by our mate that gulf weed, dried and pounded,
was given in America to women in childbed, and besides this it is also
used there in fevers. The whole ocean is as if it were covered with
this weed, and it must also be in immense quantities in the gulf of
Florida, from whence all this driving on the ocean is said to come.
Several little shells pointed like horns, and Escharæ or Horn wracks
are frequently found on it: and seldom is there one bundle of this
plant to be met with, which does not contain either a minute shrimp, or
a small crab, the latter of which is the Cancer minutus of Dr. Linnæus.
Of these I collected eight, and of the former three, all which I put in
a glass with water: the little shrimp moved as swift as an arrow round
the glass, but sometimes its motion was slow, and sometimes it stood
still on one side, or at the bottom of the glass. If one of the little
crabs approached, it was seized by its forepaws, killed and sucked; for
which reason they were careful to avoid their fate. It was quite of the
shape of a shrimp; in swimming it moved always on one side, the sides
and the tail moving alternately. It was capable of putting its forepaws
entirely into its mouth: its antennæ were in continual motion. Having
left these little shrimps together with the crabs during night, I found
on the morning all the crabs killed and eaten by the shrimps. The
former moved when alive with incredible swiftness in the water.
Sometimes when they were quite at the bottom of the glass, with a
motion something like to that of a Puceron or Podura of Linnæus; they
came in a moment to the surface of the water. In swimming they moved
all their feet very close, sometimes they held them down as other crabs
do, sometimes they lay on their backs, but as soon as the motion of
their feet ceased, they always sunk to the bottom. The remaining
shrimps I preserved in spirits, and the loss of my little crabs was
soon repaired by other specimens which are so plentiful in each of the
floating bundles of gulf-weed. For a more minute description of which I
must refer the reader to another work, I intend to publish. In some
places we saw a crab of the size of the fist, swimming by the continual
motion of its feet, which being at rest, the animal began immediately
to sink. And one time I met with a great red crawfish, or lobster,
floating on the surface of the sea.

Blubbers, or Medusæ Linn., we found of three kinds: the first is the
Medusa aurita Linn.; it is round, purple coloured, opens like a bag,
and in it are as if it were four white rings, their size varies from
one inch diameter to six inches; they have not that nettling and
burning quality which other blubbers have, such for instance as are on
the coast of Norway, and in the ocean. These we met chiefly in the
channel and in the Bay of Biscay.

After having crossed more than half of the ocean between Europe and
America, we met with a kind of blubber, which is known to Sailors by
the name of the Spanish or Portugueze man of War, it looks like a great
bladder, or the lungs of a quadruped, compressed on both sides, about
six inches in diameter, of a fine purple-red colour, and when touched
by the naked skin of the human body, it causes a greater burning than
any other kind of blubber. They are often overturned by the rolling of
the waves, but they are again standing up in an instant, and keep the
sharp or narrow side uppermost.

Within the American gulf we saw not only these Spanish men of War, but
another kind too, for which the Sailors had no other name but that of a
blubber. It was of the size of a pewter plate, brown in the middle,
with a pale margin, which was in continual motion.

Of the Lepas anatifera Linn. I saw on the 30th. of August a log of
wood, which floated on the ocean, quite covered. Of insects I saw in
the channel, when we were in sight of the Isle of Wight several white
butterflies, very like to the Papilio Brassicæ Linn. They never
settled, and by their venturing at so great a distance from land they
caused us just astonishment.

Some common flies were in our cabbin alive during the whole voyage, and
it cannot therefore be determined whether they were originally in
America, or whether they came over with the Europeans.

Of Cetaceous fish we met with Porpesses, or as some sailors call them
Sea-hogs [2] (Delphinus Phocæna, Linn.) first in the channel and then
they continued every where on this side the Azores, where they are the
only fish navigators meet with; but beyond these isles they are seldom
seen, till again in the neighbourhood of America we saw them equally
frequent to the very mouth of Delaware river. They always appeared in
shoals, some of which consisted of upwards of an hundred individuals;
their swimming was very swift, and though they often swam along side of
our ship, being taken as it were with the noise caused by the ship
cutting the waves, they however soon outwent her, when they were tired
with staring at her. They are from four to eight feet long, have a bill
like in shape to that of a goose, a white belly, and leap up into the
air frequently four feet high, and from four to eight feet in length;
though their snoring indicates the effort which a leap of that nature
costs them. Our sailors made many vain attempts to strike one of them
with the harp iron from the forecastle, when they came within reach,
but their velocity always eluded their skill.

Another cetaceous fish, of the Dolphin kind, [3] with which we met, is
called by the sailors Bottle-nose, it swims in great shoals, has a head
like a bottle, and is killed by a harpoon, and is sometimes eaten.
These fish are very large, and some fully twelve feet long; their
shape, and manner of tumbling and swimming make them nearly related to
Porpesses. They are to be met with every where in the ocean from the
channel to the very neighbourhood of America.

One Whale we saw at a distance, and knew it by the water which it
spouted up.

A Dog-fish of a considerable size followed the ship for a little while,
but it was soon out of sight, without our being able to determine to
which species it belonged: this was the only cartilaginous fish we saw
on the whole passage.

Of the bony fish, we saw several beyond the Azores, but never one on
this side of those isles, one of them was of a large size, and we saw
it at a distance; the sailors called it an Albecor, and it is Dr.
Linnæus’s Scomber Thynnus.

The Dolphin of the English is the Dorado of the Portugueze, and Dr.
Linnæus calls it Coryphæna Hippuris; it is about two feet and a half
long, near the head six inches deep, and three inches broad; from the
head the Dolphin decreases on all sides towards the tail, where its
perpendicular depth is one inch and a half, and its breadth hardly one
inch. The colour of the back near the head is a fine green on a silver
ground, but near the tail of a deep blue; the belly is white, and
sometimes mixed with a deep yellow, on the sides it has some round pale
brown spots. It has six and not seven fins as was imagined; two of them
are on the breast, two on the belly, one at the tail extending to the
anus, and one along the whole back, which is of a fine blue: when the
fish is just taken the extremities of the most outward rays in the tail
were eight inches one from another. Their motion when they swam behind,
or along side of the ship was very slow, and gave a fair opportunity to
hit them with the harpoon, though some are taken with a hook and line,
and a bait of chicken bowels, small fish, or pieces of his own species,
or the flying fish, which latter are their chief food: and it is by
their chasing them, that the flying fish leave their element to find
shelter in one to which they are strangers. The Dolphins sometimes leap
a fathom out of the water, and love to swim about casks and logs of
wood, that sometimes drive in the sea. They are eaten with thick
butter, when boiled, and sometimes fried, and afford a palatable food,
but rather somewhat dry. In the bellies of the fish of this species
which we caught, several animals were found, viz. an Ostracion; a
little fish with blue eyes, which was yet alive, being just the moment
before swallowed, and measuring two inches in length; another little
fish; a curious marine insect, and a flying fish, all which not yet
being damaged by digestion, I preserved in spirits.

The Flying Fish (Exocoetus volitans, Linn.) are always seen in great
shoals, sometimes of an hundred or more getting at once out of the
water, being pursued by greater fish, and chiefly by Dolphins; they
rise about a yard, and even a fathom above the water in their flight,
but this latter height they only are at, when they take their flight
from the top of a wave; and sometimes it is said they fall on the deck
of ships. The greatest distance they fly, is a good musket-shot, and
this they perform in less than half a minute’s time; their motion is
somewhat like that of the yellow-hammer, (Emberiza Citrinella, Linn.).
It is very remarkable that I found the course they took always to be
against the wind, and though I was contradicted by the sailors, who
affirmed that they went at any direction, I nevertheless was confirmed
in my opinion by a careful observation during the whole voyage,
according to which they fly constantly either directly against the
wind, or somewhat in an oblique direction. [4]

We saw likewise the fish called Bonetos, (Scomber Pelamys, Linn.) they
were likewise in shoals, hunting some smaller fish, which chase caused
a noise like to that of a cascade, because they were all swimming close
in a body; but they always kept out of the reach of our harpoons.

Of amphibious animals, or reptiles; we met twice with a Turtle, one of
which was sleeping, the other swam without taking notice of our ship;
both were of two feet diameter.

Birds are pretty frequently seen on the ocean, though Aquatic Birds are
more common than Land Birds.

The Petrel (Procellaria Pelagica, Linn.) was our companion from the
channel to the shores of America. Flocks of this bird were always about
our ship, chiefly in that part of the sea, which being cut by the ship,
forms a smooth surface, where they frequently seem to settle, though
always on the wing. They pick up or examine every thing that falls
accidentally from the ship, or is thrown over board: little fish seem
to be their chief food; in day time they are silent, in the dark
clamorous; they are reputed to forebode a storm, for which reason the
sailors disliking their company, complimented them with the name of
witches; but they are as frequent in fair weather, without a storm
following their appearance. To me it appeared as if they stayed
sometimes half an hour and longer under the waves, and the sailors
assured me they did. They look like swallows, and like them they skim
sometimes on the water.

The Shearwater (Procellaria Puffinus, Linn.) is another sea-bird, which
we saw every where on our voyage, from the channel to the American
coasts; it has much the appearance and size of the dark-grey Sea-gull,
or of a Duck; it has a brown back, and commonly a white ring round its
neck, and a peculiar slow way of flying. We plainly saw some of these
birds feed on fish.

The Tropic bird (Phaëton æthereus, Linn.) has very much the shape of a
gull, but two very long feathers, which it has in its tail, distinguish
it enough from any other bird; its flight is often exceedingly high:
the first of this kind we met, was at about forty deg. north lat. and
forty-nine or fifty deg. west long. from London.

Common Gulls (Larus canus, Linn.) we saw, when we were opposite the
Land’s End, the most westerly cape of England, and when according to
our reckoning we were opposite Ireland.

Terns (Sterna hirundo, Linn.) though of a somewhat darker colour than
the common ones, we found after the forty-first deg. of north lat. and
forty-seventh deg. west long. from London, very plentifully, and
sometimes in flocks of some hundreds; sometimes they settled, as if
tired, on our ship.

Within the American gulph we discovered a sea-bird at a little distance
from the ship, which the sailors called a Sea-hen.

Land-birds are now and then seen at sea, and sometimes at a good
distance from any land, so that it is often difficult, to account for
their appearance in so uncommon a place. August the 18th. we saw a bird
which settled on our ship, and was perfectly like the great Titmouse,
(Parus major, Linn.) upon an attempt to catch it, it got behind the
sails, and could never be caught.

September the 1st. We observed some Land-birds flying about our ship,
which we took for Sand Martins (Hirundo riparia, Linn.) sometimes they
settled on our ship, or on the sails; they were of a greyish brown
colour on their back, their breast white, and the tail somewhat
furcated; a heavy shower of rain drove them afterwards away, September
the 2d. a Swallow fluttered about the ship, and sometimes it settled on
the mast; it seemed to be very tired; several times it approached our
cabin windows, as if it was willing to take shelter there. These cases
happened about forty deg. north lat. and between forty-seven and
forty-nine deg. west long. from London, and also about twenty deg.
long. or more than nine hundred and twenty sea miles from any land
whatsoever.

September the 10th. within the American gulph a large bird, which we
took for an Owl, and likewise a little bird settled on our sails.

September the 12th. a Wood-pecker settled on our rigging: its back was
of a speckled grey, and it seemed extremely fatigued. And another
land-bird of the passerine class, endeavoured to take shelter and rest
on our ship.

Before I entirely take leave of the sea, I will communicate my
observations on two curious phœnomena.

In the channel and in the ocean we saw at night time, sparks of fire,
as if flowing on the water, especially where it was agitated, sometimes
one single spark swam for the space of more than one minute on the
ocean before it vanished. The sailors observed them commonly to appear
during, and after a storm from the north, and that often the sea is as
if it were full of fire, and that some such shining sparks would
likewise stick to the masts and sails.

Sometimes this light had not the appearance of sparks, but looked
rather like the phosphorescence of putrid wood.

The Thames-water which made our provision of fresh water, is reputed to
be the best of any. It not only settled in the oak casks it is kept in,
but becomes in a little time stinking, when stopped up; however this
nauseous smell it soon looses, after being filled into large stone
juggs, and exposed to the open fresh air for two or three hours
together. Often the vapours arising from a cask which has been kept
close and stopped up for a great while take fire, if a candle is held
near them when the cask is opened, and the Thames water is thought to
have more of this quality than any other; though I was told that this
even happened with any other water in the same circumstances.

Now I can resume my narrative, and therefore observe that we afterwards
sailed on the river with a fair wind, pretty late at night. In the dawn
of the evening we passed by Newcastle, a little town on the western
shore of the river Delaware. It was already so dark, that we could
hardly know it, but by the light which appeared through some of the
windows. The Dutch are said to have been the first founders of this
place, which is therefore reckoned the most ancient in the country,
even more ancient than Philadelphia. But its trade can by no means be
compared with the Philadelphia trade, though its situation has more
advantages in several respects; one of which is, that the river seldom
freezes before it, and consequently ships can come in and go out at any
time. But near Philadelphia it is almost every winter covered with ice,
so that navigation is interrupted for some weeks together. But the
country about Philadelphia and farther up, being highly cultivated, and
the people bringing all their goods to that place, Newcastle must
always be inferior to it.

I mentioned, that the Dutch laid the foundations of this town. This
happened at the time, when this country was as yet subject to Sweden.
But the Dutch crept in, and intended by degrees to dispossess the
Swedes, as a people who had taken possession of their property. They
succeeded in their attempt; for the Swedes not being able to bear with
this encroachment, came to a war, in which the Dutch got the better.
But they did not enjoy the fruits of their victory long: for a few
years after, the English came and deprived them of their acquisition,
and have ever since continued in the undisturbed possession of the
country. Somewhat later at night we cast anchor, the pilot not
venturing to carry the ship up the river in the dark, several sands
being in the way.

September 15th. In the dawn of the morning we weighed anchor, and
continued our voyage up the river. The country was inhabited almost
every where on both sides. The farm-houses were however pretty far
asunder. About eight o’clock in the morning we sailed by the little
town of Chester, on the western side of the river. In this town, our
mate, who was born in Philadelphia, shewed me the places, which the
Swedes still inhabit.

At last we arrived in Philadelphia about ten o’Clock in the morning. We
had not been more than six weeks, or (to speak more accurately) not
quite forty one days on our voyage from Gravesend to this place,
including the time we spent at Deal, in supplying ourselves with the
necessary fresh provisions, &amp;c. our voyage was therefore reckoned one
of the shortest. For it is common in winter time to be fourteen,
nineteen, or more weeks in coming from Gravesend to Philadelphia.
Hardly any body ever had a more pleasant voyage over this great ocean,
than we had. Captain Lawson affirmed this several times. Nay he assured
us he had never seen such calm weather in this ocean, though he had
crossed it very often. The wind was generally so favourable that a boat
of a middling size might have sailed in perfect safety. The sea never
went over our cabin, and but once over the deck, and that was only in a
swell. The weather indeed was so clear, that a great number of the
Germans on board slept on the deck. The cabin windows needed not the
shutters. All these are circumstances which show the uncommon goodness
of the weather.

Captain Lawson’s civility increased the pleasure of the voyage. For he
shewed me all the friendship, that he could have shewn to any of his
relations.

As soon as we were come to the town, and had cast anchor, many of the
inhabitants came on board, to enquire for Letters. They took all those
which they could carry, either for themselves or for their friends.
Those, which remained, the captain ordered to be carried on shore, and
to be brought into a coffee-house, where every body could make enquiry
for them, and by this means he was rid of the trouble of delivering
them himself. I afterwards went on shore with him. But before he went,
he strictly charged the second mate, to let no one of the German
refugees out of the ship, unless he paid for his passage, or some body
else paid for him, or bought him.

On my leaving London I received letters of recommendation from Mr.
Abraham Spalding, Mr. Peter Collinson, Dr. Mitchel, and others to their
friends here. It was easy for me therefore to get acquaintance. Mr.
Benjamin Franklin, to whom Pensylvania is indebted for its welfare, and
the learned world for many new discoveries in Electricity, was the
first, who took notice of me, and introduced me to many of his friends.
He gave me all necessary instructions, and shewed me his kindness on
many occasions.

I went to day accompanied by Mr. Jacob Bengtson, a member of the
Swedish consistory and the sculptor Gustavus Hesselius, to see the town
and the fields which lay before it. (The former is brother of the rev.
Messrs. Andrew and Samuel Hesselius, both ministers at Christiana in
new Sweden, and of the late Dr. John Hesselius in the provinces of
Nerik and Wermeland). My new friend had followed his brother Andrew in
1711 to this country, and had since lived in it. I found that I was now
come into a new world. Whenever I looked to the ground, I every where
found such plants as I had never seen before. When I saw a tree, I was
forced to stop, and ask those who accompanied me, how it was called.
The first plant which struck my eyes was an Andropogon, or a kind of
grass, and grass is a part of Botany I always delighted in. I was
seized with terror at the thought of ranging so many new and unknown
parts of natural history. At first I only considered the plants,
without venturing a more accurate examination.

At night I took up my lodging with a grocer who was a quaker, and I met
with very good honest people in this house, such as most people of this
profession appeared to me, I and my Yungstrœm, the companion of my
voyage, had a room, candles, beds, attendance, and three meals a day,
if we chose to have so many, for twenty shillings per week in
Pensylvania currency. But wood, washing and wine, if required, were to
be paid for besides.

September the 16th. Before I proceed I must give a short description of
Philadelphia, which I shall frequently mention in the sequel of my
travels. I here put down several particulars which I marked during my
stay at that place, as a help to memory.

Philadelphia, the capital of Pensylvania, a province which makes part
of what formerly was called New Sweden is one of the principal towns in
North-America; and next to Boston the greatest. It is situated almost
in the center of the English colonies, and its lat. is thirty nine deg.
and fifty min. but its west long. from London near seventy five deg.

This town was built in the year 1683, or as others say in 1682, by the
well known quaker William Pen, who got this whole province by a grant
from Charles the second, king of England; after Sweden had given up its
claims to it. According to Pen’s plan the town was to have been built
upon a piece of land which is formed by the union of the rivers
Delaware and Skulkill, in a quadrangular form, two English miles long
and one broad. The eastern side would therefore have been bounded by
the Delaware, and the western by the Skulkill. They had actually begun
to build houses on both these rivers; for eight capital streets, each
two English miles long, and sixteen lesser streets (or lanes) across
them, each one mile in length, were marked out, with a considerable
breadth, and in strait lines. The place was at that time almost an
entire wilderness covered with thick forests, and belonged to three
Swedish brothers called Sven’s-Sœner (Sons of Sven) who had settled in
it. They with difficulty left the place, the situation of which was
very advantageous, But at last they were persuaded to it by Pen, who
gave them a few English miles from that place twice the space of
country they inhabited. However Pen himself and his descendants after
him, have considerably lessened the ground belonging to them, by
repeated mensurations, under pretence that they had taken more than
they ought.

But the inhabitants could not be got in sufficient number to fill a
place of such extent. The plan therefore about the river Skulkill was
laid aside till more favourable circumstances should occur, and the
houses were only built along the Delaware. This river flows along the
eastern side of the town, is of great advantage to its trade, and gives
a fine prospect. The houses which had already been built upon the
Skulkill were transplanted hitherto by degrees. This town accordingly
lies in a very pleasant country, from north to south along the river.
It measures somewhat more than an English mile in length; and its
breadth in some places is half a mile or more. The ground is flat and
consists of sand mixed with a little clay. Experience has shewn that
the air of this place is very healthy.

The streets are regular, fine, and most of them are fifty foot, English
measure, broad; Arch-street measures sixty six feet in breadth, and
Market-street or the principal street, where the market is kept, near a
hundred. Those which run longitudinally, or from north to south are
seven, exclusive of a little one, which runs along the river, to the
south of the market, and is called Water-street. The lanes which go
across, and were intended to reach from the Delaware to the Skulkill,
are eight in number. They do not go quite from east to west, but
deviate a little from that direction. All the streets except two which
are nearest to the river, run in a straight line, and make right angles
at the intersections. Some are paved, others are not; and it seems less
necessary since the ground is sandy, and therefore soon absorbs the
wet. But in most of the streets is a pavement of flags, a fathom or
more broad, laid before the houses, and posts put on the outside three
or four fathom asunder. Under the roofs are gutters which are carefully
connected with pipes, and by this means, those who walk under them,
when it rains, or when the snow melts, need not fear being wetted by
the dropping from the roofs.

The houses make a good appearance, are frequency several stories high,
and built either of bricks or of stone; but the former are more
commonly used, since bricks are made before the town, and are well
burnt. The stone which has been employed in the building of other
houses, is a mixture of black or grey glimmer, running in undulated
veins, and of a loose, and quite small grained limestone, which run
scattered between the bendings of the other veins, and are of a grey
colour, excepting here and there some single grains of sand, of a paler
hue. The glimmer makes the greatest part of the stone; but the mixture
is sometimes of another kind, as I shall relate hereafter under the
article, eleventh of October. This stone is now got in great quantities
in the country, is easily cut, and has the good quality of not
attracting the moisture in a wet season. Very good lime is burnt every
where hereabouts, for masonry.

The houses are covered with shingles. The wood for this purpose is
taken from the Cupressus thyoides, Linn. or a tree which Swedes here
call the white juniper-tree, and the English, the white cedar. Swamps
and Morasses formerly were full of them, but at present these trees are
for the greatest part cut down, and no attempt has as yet been made to
plant new ones. The wood is very light, rots less than any other in
this country, and for that reason is exceeding good for roofs. For it
is not too heavy for the walls, and will serve for forty or fifty years
together. But many people already begin to fear, that these roofs will
in time be looked upon as having been very detrimental to the city. For
being so very light, most people who have built their houses of stone,
or bricks, have been led to make their walls extremely thin. But at
present this kind of wood is almost entirely destroyed. Whenever
therefore in process of time these roofs decay, the people will be
obliged to have recourse to the heavier materials of tiles, or the
like, which the walls will not be strong enough to bear. The roof will
therefore require supports, or the people be obliged to pull down the
walls and to build new ones, or to take other steps for securing them.
Several people have already in late years begun to make roofs of tiles.

Among the publick buildings I will first mention churches, of which
there are several, for God is served in various ways in this country.

1. The English established church stands in the northern part of the
town, at some distance from the market, and is the finest of all. It
has a little, inconsiderable steeple, in which is a bell to be rung
when it is time to go to church, and on burials. It has likewise a
clock which strikes the hours. This building which is called Christ
church, was founded towards the end of the last century, but has lately
been rebuilt and more adorned. It has two ministers who get the
greatest part of their salary from England. In the beginning of this
century, the Swedish minister the Rev. Mr. Rudmann, performed the
functions of a clergyman to the English congregation for near two
years, during the absence of their own clergyman.

2. The Swedish church, which is otherwise called the church of
Weekacko, is on the southern part of the town, and almost without it,
on the river’s side, and its situation is therefore more agreeable than
that of any other. I shall have an opportunity of describing it more
exactly, when I shall speak of the Swedes in particular, who live in
this place.

3. The German Lutheran church, is on the north-west side of the town.
On my arrival in America it had a little steeple, but that being but up
by an ignorant architect, before the walls of the church were quite
dry, they leaned forwards by its weight, and therefore they were forced
to pull it down again in the autumn of the year 1750. About that time
the congregation received a fine organ from Germany. They have only one
minister, who likewise preaches at another Lutheran church in
Germantown. He preaches alternately one sunday in that church, and
another in this. The first clergyman which the Lutherans had in this
town, was the Rev. Mr. Muhlenberg, who laid the foundations of this
church in 1743, and being called to another place afterwards, the rev.
Mr. Brunholz from Sleswick was his successor, and is yet here. Both
these gentlemen were sent to this place from Hall in Saxony, and have
been a great advantage to it by their peculiar talent of preaching in
an edifying manner. A little while before this church was built, the
Lutheran Germans had no clergyman for themselves, so that the
every-where beloved Swedish minister at Weekacko, Mr. Dylander,
preached likewise to them. He therefore preached three sermons every
sunday; the first early in the morning to the Germans; the second to
the Swedes, and the third in the afternoon to the English, and besides
this he went all the week into the country and instructed the Germans
who lived separately there. He therefore frequently preached sixteen
sermons a week. And after his death, which happened in November 1741,
the Germans first wrote to Germany for a clergyman for themselves. This
congregation is at present very numerous, so that every sunday the
church is very much crowded. It has two galleries, but no vestry. They
do not sing the collects, but read them before the altar.

4. The old Presbyterian church, is not far from the market, and on the
south-side of market-street. It is of a middling size, and built in the
year 1704, as the inscription on the northern pediment shews. The roof
is built almost hemispherical, or at least forms a hexagon. The whole
building stands from north to south, for the presbyterians do not
regard, as other people do, whether their churches look towards a
certain point of the heavens or not.

5. The new Presbyterian church was built in the year 1750, by the
New-lights in the north-western part of the town. By the name of
New-lights, are understood the people who have, from different
religions, become proselytes to the well known Whitefield, who in the
years 1739, 1740, and likewise in 1744 and 1745 travelled through
almost all the English colonies. His delivery, his extraordinary zeal,
and other talents so well adapted to the intelects of his hearers, made
him so popular that he frequently, especially in the two first years,
got from eight thousand to twenty thousand hearers in the fields. His
intention in these travels, was to collect money for an orphans
hospital which had been erected in Georgia. He here frequently
collected seventy pounds sterling at one sermon; nay, at two sermons
which he preached in the year 1740, both an one sunday, at
Philadelphia, he got an hundred and fifty pounds. The proselytes of
this man, or the above-mentioned new-lights, are at present merely a
sect of presbyterians. For though Whitefield was originally a clergyman
of the English church, yet he deviated by little and little from her
doctrines; and on arriving in the year 1744 at Boston in New England,
he disputed with the Presbyterians about their doctrines, so much that
he almost entirely embraced them. For Whitefield was no great
disputant, and could therefore easily be led by these cunning people,
whithersoever they would have him. This likewise during his latter stay
in America caused his audience to be less numerous than during the
first. The new-lights built first in the year 1741, a great house in
the western part of the town, to hold divine service in. But a division
arising amongst them after the departure of Whitefield, and besides on
other accounts, the building was sold to the town in the beginning of
the year 1750, and destined for a school. The new-lights then built a
church which I call the new Presbyterian one. On its eastern pediment
is the following inscription, in golden letters: Templum
Presbyterianum, annuente numine, erectum, Anno Dom. MDCCL.

6. The old German reformed church is built in the west north-west part
of the town, and looks like the church in the Ladugoordfield near
Stockholm. It is not yet finished, though for several years together,
the congregation has kept up divine service in it. These Germans
attended the German service at the Swedish church, whilst the Swedish
minister Mr. Dylander lived.—But as the Lutherans got a clergyman for
themselves on the death of the last, those of the reformed church made
likewise preparations to get one from Dordrecht; and the first who was
sent to them, was the Rev. Mr. Slaughter, whom I found on my arrival.
But in the year 1750, another clergyman of the reformed church arrived
from Holland, and by his artful behaviour, so insinuated himself into
the favour of the Rev. Mr. Slaughter’s congregation, that the latter
lost almost half his audience. The two clergymen then disputed for
several sundays together, about the pulpit, nay, people relate that the
new comer mounted the pulpit on a saturday, and stayed in it all night.
The other being thus excluded, the two parties in the audience, made
themselves the subject both of the laughter and of the scorn of the
whole town, by beating and bruising each other, and committing other
excesses. The affair was inquired into by the magistrates, and decided
in favour of the rev. Mr. Slaughter, the person who had been abused.

7. The new reformed church, was built at a little distance from the old
one by the party of the clergyman, who had lost his cause. This man
however had influence enough to bring over to his party almost the
whole audience of his antagonist, at the end of the year 1750, and
therefore this new church will soon be useless.

8. 9. The Quakers have two meetings, one in the market, and the other
in the northern part of the town. In them are according to the custom
of this people, neither altars, nor pulpits, nor any other ornaments
usual in churches; but only seats and some sconces. They meet thrice
every sunday in them, and besides that at certain times every week or
every month. I shall mention more about them hereafter.

10. The Baptists, have their service, in the northern part of the town.

11. The Roman Catholicks, have in the south-west part of the town a
great house, which is well adorned within, and has an organ.

12. The Moravian Brethren, have hired a great house, in the northern
part of the town, in which they performed the service both in German
and in English; not only twice or three times every sunday, but
likewise every night after it was grown dark. But in the winter of the
year 1750, they were obliged to drop their evening meetings; some
wanton young fellows having several times disturbed the congregation,
by an instrument sounding like the note of a cuckoo, for this noise
they made in a dark corner, not only at the end of every stanza, but
likewise at that of every line, whilst they were singing a hymn.

Those of the English church, the New-lights, the Quakers, and the
Germans of the reformed religion, have each of them their burying
places on one side out of town, and not near their churches, though the
first of these sometimes make an exception. All the others bury their
dead in their church-yards, and Moravian brethren bury where they can.
The Negroes are buried in a particular place out of town.

I now proceed to mention the other publick buildings in Philadelphia.

The Town-hall, or the place where the assemblies are held, is situated
in the western part of the town, it is a fine large building, having a
tower with a bell in the middle, and is the greatest ornament to the
town. The deputies of each province meet in it commonly every October,
or even more frequently if circumstances require it, in order to
consider of the welfare of the country, and to hold their parliaments
or diets in miniature. There they revise the old laws, and make new
ones.

On one side of this building stands the Library, which was first begun
in the year 1742, on a publick spirited plan, formed and put in
execution by the learned Mr. Franklin. For he persuaded first the most
substantial people in town to pay forty shillings at the outset, and
afterwards annually ten shillings, all in Pensylvania currency, towards
purchasing all kinds of useful books. The subscribers are entitled to
make use of the books. Other people are likewise at liberty to borrow
them for a certain time, but must leave a pledge and pay eight-pence a
week for a folio volume, six-pence for a quarto, and four-pence for all
others of a smaller size. As soon as the time, allowed a person for the
perusal of the volume, is elapsed, it must be returned, or he is fined.
The money arising in this manner is employed for the salary of the
librarian, and for purchasing new books. There was already a fine
collection of excellent works, most of them English; many French and
Latin, but few in any other language. The subscribers were so kind to
me, as to order the librarian, during my stay here, to lend me every
book, which I should want, without requiring any payment of me. The
library was open every saturday from four to eight o’clock in the
afternoon. Besides the books, several mathematical and physical
instruments, and a large collection of natural curiosities were to be
seen in it. Several little libraries were founded in the town on the
same footing or nearly with this.

The Court House stands in the middle of Market street, to the west of
the market, it is fine building, with a little tower in which there is
a bell. Below and round about this building the market is properly kept
every week.

The building of the Academy, is in the western part of the town. It was
formerly as I have before mentioned, a meeting-house of the followers
of Whitefield, but they sold it in the year 1750, and it was destined
to be the seat of an university, or to express myself in more exact
terms, to be a college, it was therefore fitted up to this purpose. The
youths are here only taught those things which they learn in our common
schools; but in time, such lectures are intended to be read here, as
are usual in real universities.

At the close of the last war, a redoubt was erected here, on the south
side of the town, near the river, to prevent the French and Spanish
privateers from landing. But this was done after a very strong debate.
For the quakers opposed all fortifications, as contrary to the tenets
of their religion, which allow not christians to make war either
offensive or defensive, but direct them to place their trust in the
Almighty alone. Several papers were then handed about for and against
the opinion. But the enemy’s privateers having taken several vessels
belonging to the town, in the river, many of the quakers, if not all of
them, found it reasonable to forward the building of the fortification
as much as possible, at least by a supply of money.

Of all the natural advantages of the town, its temperate climate is the
most considerable, the winter not being over severe, and its duration
but short, and the summer not too hot; the country round about bringing
forth those fruits in the greatest plenty, which are raised by
husbandry. Their September and October are like the beginning of the
Swedish August. And the first days in their February are frequently as
pleasant, as the end of April and the beginning of May in Sweden. Even
their coldest days in some winters have been no severer, than the days
at the end of autumn are in the middlemost parts of Sweden, and the
southern ones of Finland.

The good and clear water in Philadelphia, is likewise one of its
advantages. For though there are no fountains in the town, yet there is
a well in every house, and several in the streets, all which afford
excellent water for boiling, drinking, washing, and other uses. The
water is commonly met with at the depth of forty feet. The water of the
river Delaware is likewise good. But in making the wells, a fault is
frequently committed, which in several places of the town, spoils the
water which is naturally good; I shall in the sequel take an
opportunity of speaking further about it.

The Delaware is exceeding convenient for trade. It is one of the
greatest rivers in the world: is three English miles broad at its
mouth, two miles at the town of Wilmington, and three quarters of a
mile at Philadelphia. This city lies within ninety or an hundred
English miles from the sea, or from the place where the river Delaware
discharges itself into the bay of that name. Yet its depth is hardly
ever less than five or six fathom. The greatest ships therefore can
sail quite up to the town and anchor in good ground in five fathoms of
water, on the side of the bridge. The water here has no longer a
saltish taste, and therefore all destructive worms, which have fastened
themselves to the ships in the sea, and have pierced holes into them,
either die, or drop off, after the ship has been here for a while.

The only disadvantage which trade labours under here, is the freezing
of the river almost every winter for a month or more. For during that
time the navigation is entirely stopped. But this does not happen at
Boston, New York, and other towns which are nearer the sea.

The tide comes up to Philadelphia, and even goes thirty miles higher,
to Trenton. The difference between high and low water is eight feet at
Philadelphia.

The cataracts of the Delaware near Trenton, and of the Skulkill at some
distance from Philadelphia, make these rivers useless further up the
country, in regard to the conveyance of goods either from or to
Philadelphia. Both must therefore be carried on waggons or carts. It
has therefore already been thought of to make these two rivers
navigable in time, at least for large boats and small vessels.

Several ships are annually built of American oak, in the docks which
are made in several parts of the town and about it, yet they can by no
means be put in comparison with those built of European oak, in point
of goodness and duration.

The town carries on a great trade, both with the inhabitants of the
country, and to other parts of the world, especially to the West
Indies, South America, and the Antilles; to England, Ireland, Portugal,
and to several English colonies in North America. Yet none but English
ships are allowed to come into this port.

Philadelphia reaps the greatest profits from its trade to the West
Indies. For thither the inhabitants ship almost every day a quantity of
flour, butter, flesh and other victuals; timber, plank and the like. In
return they receive either sugar, molasses, rum, indigo, mahogany, and
other goods, or ready money. The true mahogany which grows in Jamaica,
is at present almost all cut down.

They send both West India goods, and their own productions to England;
the latter are all sorts of woods, especially black walnut, and oak
planks for ships; ships ready built, iron, hides and tar. Yet this
latter is properly bought in New Jersey, the forests of which province
are consequently more ruined than any others. Ready money is likewise
sent over to England, from whence in return they get all sorts of goods
there manufactured, viz. fine and coarse cloth, linen, iron ware, and
other wrought metals, and East India goods. For it is to be observed
that England supplies Philadelphia with almost all stuffs and
manufactured goods which are wanted here.

A great quantity of linseed goes annually to Ireland, together with
many of the ships which are built here. Portugal gets wheat, corn,
flour and maize which is not ground. Spain sometimes takes some corn.
But all the money, which is got in these several countries, must
immediately be sent to England, in payment for the goods which are got
from thence, and yet those sums are not sufficient to pay all the
debts.

But to shew more exactly, what the town and province have imported from
England, in different years, I shall here insert an extract from the
English custom-house books, which I got from the engineer, Lewis Evans,
at Philadelphia, and which will sufficiently answer the purpose. This
gentleman had desired one of his friends in London to send him a
compleat account of all the goods shipped from England to Pensylvania
in several years. He got this account, and though the goods are not
enumerated in it, yet their value in money is calculated. Such extracts
from the custom-house books have been made for every North-American
province, in order to convince the English parliament, that those
provinces have taken greater quantities of the goods in that kingdom,
ever since they have turned their money into bills.

I have taken the copy from the original itself, and it is to be
observed that it begins with the christmas of the year 1722, and ends
about the same time of the year 1747. In the first column is the value
of the foreign goods, the duty for which has already been paid in
England. The second column shews the value of the goods manufactured in
England and exported to Pensylvania. And in the last column these two
sums are added together, but at the bottom each of the columns is cast
up.

But this table does not include the goods which are annually shipped in
great quantities to Pensylvania from Scotland and Ireland, among which
is a great quantity of linen.


+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
|          The Value of the Goods annually shipped from           |
|                     England to Pensylvania.                     |
+---------+-------------------+----------------+------------------+
|The Year,|Foreign Goods for  |                |The Sums of these |
|from one |which the duty has | English        |two preceding     |
|Christmas|already been paid, | manufactured   |columns added     |
|    to   |&amp; which therefore  | Goods.         |together.         |
| another.|only req. receipts.|                |                  |
+---------+-------------------+----------------+------------------+
|         |  l.     s.     d. |   l.    s.  d. |   l.    s.    d. |
|  1723   | 5199 |  13 |   5  | 10793|  5 | 1  | 15992 | 19 |  4  |
|  1724   | 9373 |  15 |   8  | 20951|  0 | 5  | 30324 | 16 |  1  |
|  1725   |10301 |  12 |   6  | 31508|  1 | 8  | 42209 | 14 |  2  |
|  1726   | 9371 |  11 |   6  | 28263|  6 | 2  | 37634 | 17 |  8  |
|  1727   |10243 |   0 |   7  | 21736| 10 | 0  | 31979 | 10 |  7  |
|  1728   |14073 |  13 |   3  | 23405|  6 | 2  | 37478 | 19 | 11  |
|  1729   |12948 |   8 |   5  | 16851|  2 | 5  | 29799 | 10 | 10  |
|  1730   |15660 |  10 |  11  | 32931| 16 | 6  | 48592 |  7 |  5  |
|  1731   |11838 |  17 |   4  | 32421| 18 | 9  | 44260 | 16 |  1  |
|  1732   |15240 |  14 |   4  | 26457| 19 | 3  | 41698 | 13 |  7  |
|  1733   |13187 |   0 |   8  | 27378|  7 | 5  | 40585 |  8 |  1  |
|  1734   |19648 |  15 |   9  | 34743| 12 | 1  | 54392 |  7 | 10  |
|  1735   |18078 |   4 |   3  | 30726|  7 | 1  | 48804 | 11 |  4  |
|  1736   |23456 |  15 |  11  | 38057|  2 | 5  | 61513 | 18 |  4  |
|  1737   |14517 |   4 |   3  | 42173|  2 | 4  | 56690 |  6 |  7  |
|  1738   |20320 |  19 |   3  | 41129|  5 | 0  | 61450 |  4 |  3  |
|  1739   | 9041 |   4 |   5  | 45411|  7 | 6  | 54452 | 11 | 11  |
|  1740   |10280 |   2 |   0  | 46471| 12 | 9  | 56751 | 14 |  9  |
|  1741   |12977 |  18 |  10  | 78032| 13 | 1  | 91010 | 11 | 11  |
|  1742   |14458 |   6 |   3  | 60836| 17 | 1  | 75295 |  3 |  4  |
|  1743   |19220 |   1 |   6  | 60120|  4 |10  | 79340 |  6 |  4  |
|  1744   |14681 |   8 |   4  | 47595| 18 | 2  | 62214 |  6 |  6  |
|  1745   |13043 |   8 |   8  | 41237|  2 | 3  | 54280 | 10 | 11  |
|  1746   |18103 |  12 |   7  | 55595| 19 | 7  | 73699 | 12 |  2  |
|  1747   | 8585 |  14 |  11  | 73819|  2 | 8  | 82404 | 17 |  7  |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------|
|  Total. 343,789   16     0  969,049   1   6  1,312,838 17    6  |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+


The whole extent of the Philadelphia trade may be comprehended from the
number of ships, which annually arrive at and sail from this town. I
intend to insert here a table of a few years which I have taken from
the gazettes of the town. The ships coming and going in one year, are
to be reckoned from the twenty fifth of March of that year, to the
twenty fifth of March of the next.


               The Year.   Ships arrived.   Ships sailed.

                1735              199             212
                1740              307             208
                1741              292             309
                1744              229             271
                1745              280             301
                1746              273             293


But it is much to be feared that the trade of Philadelphia, and of all
the English colonies, will rather decrease than encrease, in case no
provision is made to prevent it. I shall hereafter plainly shew upon
what foundation this decrease of trade is likely to take place.

The town not only furnishes most of the inhabitants of Pensylvania with
the goods which they want, but numbers of the inhabitants of New Jersey
come every day and carry on a great trade.

The town has two great fairs every year; one in May, and the other in
November, both on the sixteenth days of those two months. But besides
these fairs, there are every week two market days, viz. Wednesday and
Saturday. On those days the country people in Pensylvania and New
Jersey, bring to town a quantity of victuals, and other productions of
the country, and this is a great advantage to the town. It is therefore
to be wished that the like regulation might be made in our Swedish
towns. You are sure to meet with every produce of the season, which the
country affords, on the market-days. But on other days, they are in
vain sought for.

Provisions are always to be got fresh here, and for that reason most of
the inhabitants never buy more at a time, than what will be sufficient
till the next market-day. In summer there is a market almost every day;
for the victuals do not keep well in the great heat. There are two
places in the town where these markets are kept; but that near the
court-house is the principal. It begins about four or five o’clock in
the morning, and ends about nine o’clock in the forenoon.

The town is not enclosed, and has no other custom-house than the great
one for the ships.

The governor of the whole province lives here; and though he is
nominated by the heirs of Pen, yet he cannot take that office without
being confirmed by the king of England.

The quakers of almost all parts of North-America, have their great
assembly here once a year.

In the year 1743, a society for the advancement of the sciences was
erected here. Its objects would have been the curiosities of the three
kingdoms of nature, mathematicks, physick, chemistry, œconomy, and
manufactures. But the war, which ensued immediately, stopped all
designs of this nature, and since that time, nothing has been done
towards establishing any thing of this kind.

The declination of the needle was here observed on the thirtieth of
October 1750, old style, to be five deg. and forty-five min. west. It
was examined by the new meridian, which was drawn at Philadelphia in
the autumn of the same year, and extended a mile in length. By
experience it appears, that this declination lessens about a degree in
twenty years time.

The greatest difference in the rising and falling of the barometer, is
according to the observations made for several years together by Mr.
James Logan, found at 28´´ 59 and 30´´ 78.

Here are three printers, and every week two English, and one German
news-paper is printed.

In the year 1732, on the fifth of September, old style, a little
earthquake was felt here about noon, and at the same time at Boston in
New England, and at Montreal in Canada, which places are above sixty
Swedish miles asunder.

In the month of November of the year 1737, the well known prince from
mount Lebanon, Sheich Sidi came to Philadelphia, on his travels through
most of the English American colonies. And in the same year a second
earthquake was felt about eleven o’clock at night, on the seventh of
December. But it did not continue above half a minute, and yet, it was
felt according to the accounts of the gazettes at the same hour in
Newcastle, New York, New London, Boston, and other towns of New
England. It had therefore likewise reached several miles.

The count Sinzendorf [5] arrived here in the December of the year 1741,
and continued till the next spring. His uncommon behaviour persuaded
many Englishmen of rank, that he was disordered in his head.

I have not been able to find the exact number of the inhabitants of
Philadelphia. In the year 1746, they were reckoned above ten thousand,
and since that time their number is incredibly encreased. Neither can
it be made out from the Bills of mortality, since they are not kept
regularly in all the churches. I shall, however, mention some of those
which appeared either in the gazettes, or in bills printed on purpose.


                             Year.   Dead.

                             1730     227
                             1738     250
                             1739     350
                             1740     290
                             1741     345
                             1742     409
                             1743     425
                             1744     410
                             1745     420
                             1748     672
                             1749     758
                             1750     716


From these bills of mortality it also appears, that the diseases which
are the most fatal, are consumptions, fevers, convulsions, pleuresies,
hæmorrhagies, and dropsies.

The number of those that are born cannot be determined, since in many
churches no order is observed with regard to this affair. The quakers,
who are the most numerous in this town, never baptize their children,
though they take a pretty exact account of all who are born among them.

It is likewise impossible to guess at the number of inhabitants from
the dead, because the town gets such great supplies annually from other
countries. In the summer of the year 1749, near twelve thousand Germans
came over to Philadelphia, many of whom staid in that town. In the same
year the houses in Philadelphia were counted, and found to be two
thousand and seventy six in number.

The town is now quite filled with inhabitants, which in regard to their
country, religion and trade, are very different from each other. You
meet with excellent masters in all trades, and many things are made
here full as well as in England. Yet no manufactures, especially for
making fine cloth are established. Perhaps the reason is, that it can
be got with so little difficulty from England, and that the breed of
sheep which is brought over, degenerates in process of time, and
affords but a coarse wool.

Here is great plenty of provisions, and their prices are very moderate.
There are no examples of an extraordinary dearth.

Every one who acknowledges God to be the Creator, preserver and ruler
of all things, and teaches or undertakes nothing against the state, or
against the common peace, is at liberty to settle, stay, and carry on
his trade here, be his religious principles ever so strange. No one is
here molested on account of the erroneous principles of the doctrine
which he follows, if he does not exceed the above-mentioned bounds. And
he is so well secured by the laws in his person and property, and
enjoys such liberties; that a citizen of Philadelphia may in a manner
be said to live in his house like a king.

On a careful consideration of what I have already said, it will be easy
to conceive how this city should rise so suddenly from nothing, into
such grandeur and perfection, without supposing any powerful monarch’s
contributing to it, either by punishing the wicked, or by giving great
supplies in money. And yet its fine appearance, good regulations,
agreeable situation, natural advantages, trade, riches and power, are
by no means inferior to those of any, even of the most ancient towns in
Europe. It has not been necessary to force people to come and settle
here; on the contrary foreigners of different languages, have left
their country, houses, property and relations, and ventured over wide
and stormy seas, in order to come hither. Other countries, which have
been peopled for a long space of time, complain of the small number of
their inhabitants. But Pensylvania, which was no better than a desart
in the year 1681, and hardly contained five hundred people, now vies
with several kingdoms in Europe, in number of inhabitants. It has
received numbers of people which other countries, to their infinite
loss, have either neglected or expelled.

A wretched old wooden building, on a hill near the river somewhat north
of the Wickako church, belonging to one of the Sons of Sven, of whom,
as before-mentioned, the ground was bought for building Philadelphia
upon, is preserved on purpose, as a memorial of the poor state of that
place, before the town was built on it. Its antiquity gives it a kind
of superiority over all the other buildings in town, though in itself
the worst of all. This hut was inhabited, whilst as yet stags, deers,
elks, and beavers, at broad day light lived in the future streets,
church-yards, and market-places of Philadelphia. The noise of a
spinning wheel was heard in this house, before the manufactures now
established were thought of, or Philadelphia built. But with all these
advantages, this house is ready to fall down, and in a few years to
come, it will be as difficult to find the place where it stood, as it
was unlikely at the time of its erection, that one of the greatest
towns in America, should in a short time stand close up to it.

September the 7th. Mr. Peter Cock, a merchant of this town, assured me
that he had last week himself been a spectator of a snake’s swallowing
a little bird. This bird, which from its cry has the name of Cat bird,
(Muscicapa Carolinensis, Linn.) flew from one branch of a tree to
another, and was making a doleful tune. At the bottom of the tree, but
at a fathom’s distance from the stem, lay one of the great black
snakes, with its head continually upright, pointing towards the bird,
which was always fluttering about, and now and then settling on the
branches. At first it only kept in the topmost branches, but by degrees
it came lower down, and even flew upon the ground, and hopped to the
place where the snake lay, which immediately opened its mouth, caught
the bird and swallowed it; but it had scarce finished its repast before
Mr. Cock came up and killed it. I was afterwards told that this kind of
snakes was frequently observed to pursue little birds in this manner.
It is already well known that the rattle snake does the same.

I walked out to day into the fields in order to get more acquainted
with the plants hereabouts, I found several European and even Swedish
plants among them. But those which are peculiar to America, are much
more numerous.

The Virginian maple grows in plenty on the shores of the Delaware. The
English in this country call it either Buttonwood, or Waterbeech, which
latter name is most usual. The Swedes call it Wattenbok, or Wasbok. It
is Linnæus’s Platanus occidentalis. See Catesby’s Nat. Hist. of
Carolina, vol. 1. p. 56. t. 56. It grows for the greatest part in low
places, but especially on the edge of rivers and brooks. But these
trees are easily transplanted to more dry places, if they be only
filled with good soil; and as their leaves are large and their foliage
thick, they are planted about the houses and in gardens, to afford a
pleasant shade in the hot season, to the enjoyment of which some seats
were placed under them. Some of the Swedes had boxes, pails, and the
like, made of the bark of this tree by the native Americans. They say
that those people whilst they were yet settled here, made little dishes
of this bark for gathering whortleberries. The bark was a line in
thickness. This tree likewise grows in marshes, or in swampy fields,
where ash and red maple commonly grow. They are frequently as tall and
thick, as the best of our fir trees. The seed stays on them till
spring, but in the middle of April the pods open and shed the seeds.
Query, Whether they are not ripe before that time, and consequently
sooner fit for sowing? This American maple is remarkable for its quick
growth, in which it exceeds all other trees. There are such numbers of
them on the low meadows between Philadelphia and the ferry at
Gloucester, on both sides of the road, that in summer time you go as it
were through a shady walk. In that part of Philadelphia which is near
the Swedish church, some great trees of this kind stand on the shore of
the river. In the year 1750, on the 15th. of May I saw the buds still
on them, and in the year 1749 they began to flower on the eighth of
that month. Several trees of this sort are planted at Chelsea near
London, and they now in point of height vie with the tallest oak.

September the 18th. In the morning I went with the Swedish painter, Mr.
Hesselius, to the country seat of Mr. Bartram, which is about four
English miles to the south of Philadelphia, at some distance from the
high road to Maryland, Virginia, and Carolina. I had therefore the
first opportunity here, of getting an exact knowledge of the state of
the country, which was a plain covered with all kinds of trees with
deciduous leaves. The ground was sandy, mixed with clay. But the sand
seemed to be in greater quantity. In some parts the wood was cut down,
and we saw the habitations of some country people, whose corn-fields
and plantations were round their farm-houses. The wood was full of
mulberry-trees, walnut-trees of several kinds, chesnut-trees,
sassafras, and the like. Several sorts of wild vines clasped their
tendrils round, and climbed up to the summits of the highest trees; and
in other places they twined round the enclosures, so thick, that the
latter almost sunk down under their weight. The Persimon, or Diospyros
Virginiana, Linn. sp. pl. p. 1510, grew in the marshy fields, and about
springs. Its little apples looked very well already, but are not fit
for eating, before the frost has affected them, and then they have a
very fine taste. Hesselius gathered some of them, and desired my
servant to taste of the fruits of the land; but this poor credulous
follow, had hardly bit into them, when he felt the qualities they have
before the frost has penetrated them. For they contracted his mouth so
that he could hardly speak, and had a very disagreeable taste. This
disgusted him so much that he was with difficulty persuaded to taste of
it during the whole of our stay in America, notwithstanding it loses
all its acidity and acquires an agreeable flavour in autumn and towards
the beginning of winter. For the fellow always imagined, that though he
should eat them ever so late in the year, they would still retain the
same disagreeable taste.

To satisfy the curiosity of those, who are willing to know, how the
woods look in this country, and whether or no the trees in them are the
same with those found in our forests, I here insert a small catalogue
of those which grow spontaneously in the woods which are nearest to
Philadelphia. But I exclude such shrubs as do not attain any
considerable height. I shall put that tree first in order, which is
most plentiful, and so on with the rest, and therefore trees which I
have found but single, though near the town, will be last.


     1. Quercus alba, the white oak in good ground.
     2. Quercus rubra, or the black oak.
     3. Quercus hispanica, the Spanish oak, a variety of the preceding.
     4. Juglans alba, hiccory, a kind of walnut tree, of which three or
        four varieties are to be met with.
     5. Rubus occidentalis, or American blackberry shrub.
     6. Acer rubrum, the maple tree with red flowers, in swamps.
     7. Rhus glabra, the smooth leaved Sumach, in the woods, on high
        glades, and old corn-fields.
     8. Vitis labrusca and Vulpina, vines of several kinds.
     9. Sambucus canadensis, American Elder tree, along the hedges and
        on glades.
    10. Quercus phellos, the swamp oak, in morasses.
    11. Azalea lutea, the American upright honey-suckle, in the woods
        in dry places.
    12. Cratægus Crus galli, the Virginian Azarole, in woods.
    13. Vaccinium ——, a species of whortleberry shrub.
    14. Quercus prinus, the chesnut oak in good ground.
    15. Cornus florida, the cornelian cherry, in all kinds of ground.
    16. Liriodendron Tulipifera, the tulip tree, in every kind of soil.
    17. Prunus virginiana, the wild cherry tree.
    18. Vaccinium ——, a frutex whortleberry, in good ground.
    19. Prinos verticillatus, the winterberry tree in swamps.
    20. Platanus occidentalis, the water-beech.
    21. Nyssa aquatica, the tupelo tree; on fields and mountains. [6]
    22. Liquidambar styraciflua, sweet gum tree, near springs.
    23. Betula Alnus, alder, a variety of the Swedish; it was here but
        a shrub.
    24. Fagus castanea, the chesnut tree, on corn-fields, pastures, and
        in little woods.
    25. Juglans nigra, the black walnut tree, in the same place with
    the preceding tree.
    26. Rhus radicans, the twining sumach, climbed along the trees.
    27. Acer Negundo, the ash-leaved maple, in morasses and swampy
        places.
    28. Primus domestica, the wild plumb tree.
    29. Ulmus Americana, the white elm.
    30. Prunus spinosa, sloe shrub, in low places.
    31. Laurus sassafras, the sassafras tree, in a loose soil mixed
        with sand.
    32. Ribes nigrum, the currant tree, grew in low places and in
        marshes.
    33. Fraxinus excelsior, the ash tree in low places.
    34. Smilax laurifolia, the rough bind weed with the bay leaf, in
        woods and on pales or enclosures.
    35. Kalmia latifolia, the American dwarf laurel, on the northern
        side of mountains.
    36. Morus rubra, the mulberry tree on fields, hills and near the
        houses.
    37. Rhus vernix, the poisonous Sumach, in wet places.
    38. Quercus rubra, the red oak, but a peculiar variety.
    39. Hamamelis virginica, the witch hazel.
    40. Diospyros virginiana, the persimon.
    41. Pyrus coronaria, the anchor tree.
    42. Juniperus virginiana, the red juniper, in a dry poor soil.
    43. Laurus æstivalis, spice-wood in a wet soil.
    44. Carpinus ostrya, a species of horn beam in a good soil.
    45. Carpinus betulus, a horn beam, in the same kind of soil with
        the former.
    46. Fagus sylvatica, the beech, likewise in good soil.
    47. Juglans ——, a species of walnut tree on hills near rivers, [7]
        called by the Swedes Butternustræ.
    48. Pinus Americana, Pensylvanian fir tree; on the north side of
        mountains, and in vallies. [8]
    49. Betula lenta, a species of birch, on the banks of rivers.
    50. Cephalantus occidentalis, button wood, in wet places.
    51. Pinus tæda, the New Jersey fir tree, on dry sandy heaths.
    52. Cercis canadensis, the sallad tree, in a good soil.
    53. Robinia pseudacacia, the locust tree, on the corn-fields.
    54. Magnolia glauca, the laurel-leaved tulip tree, in marshy soil.
    55. Tilia Americana, the lime tree, in a good soil.
    56. Gleditsia triacanthos, the honey locust tree, or three thorned
        acacia, in the same soil.
    57. Celtis occidentalis, the nettle tree, in the fields.
    58. Annona muricata, the custard apple in a fruitful soil.


We visited several Swedes, who were settled here, and were at present
in very good circumstances. One of them was called Andrew Rambo; he had
a fine house built of stone, two stories high, and a great orchard near
it. We were every where well received, and stayed over night with the
above-mentioned countryman. We saw no other marks of autumn, than that
several fruits of this season were already ripe. For besides this all
the trees were yet as green, and the ground still as much covered with
flowers, as in our summer. Thousands of frogs croaked all the night
long in the marshes and brooks. The locusts and grasshoppers made
likewise such a great noise, that it was hardly possible for one person
to understand another. The trees too, were full of all sorts of birds,
which by the variety of their fine plumage, delighted the eye, while
the infinite variety of their tunes were continually re-echoed.

The orchards, along which we passed to-day, were only enclosed by
hurdles. But they contained all kinds of fine fruit. We wondered at
first very much when our leader leaped over the hedge into the
orchards, and gathered some agreeable fruit for us. But our
astonishment was still greater, when we saw that the people in the
garden were so little concerned at it, as not even to look at us. But
our companion told us, that the people here were not so exact in regard
to a few fruits, as they are in other countries where the soil is not
so fruitful in them. We afterwards found very frequently that the
country people in Sweden and Finland guarded their turneps more
carefully, than the people here do the most exquisite fruits.

September the 19th. As I walked this morning into the fields, I
observed that a copious dew was fallen; for the grass was as wet as if
it had rained. The leaves of the plants and trees, had contracted so
much moisture, that the drops ran down. I found on this occasion that
the dew was not only on the superior, but likewise on the inferior side
of the leaves. I therefore carefully considered many leaves both of
trees and of other plants; both of those which are more above, and of
those which are nearer to the ground. But I found in all of them, that
both sides of the leaves were equally bedewed, except those of the
Verbascum Thapsus, or great Mullein, which though their superior side
was pretty well covered with the dew, yet their inferior had but a
little.

Every countryman, even a common peasant, has commonly an orchard near
his house, in which all sorts of fruit, such as peaches, apples, pears,
cherries, and others, are in plenty. The peaches were now almost ripe.
They are rare in Europe, particularly in Sweden, for in that country
hardly any people besides the rich taste them. But here every
countryman had an orchard full of peach trees, which were covered with
such quantities of fruit, that we could scarcely walk in the orchard,
without treading upon those peaches which were fallen off; many of
which were always left on the ground, and only part of them was sold in
town, and the rest was consumed by the family and strangers; for every
one that passed by, was at liberty to go into the orchard, and to
gather as many of them as he wanted. Nay, this fine fruit was
frequently given to the swine.

This fruit is however sometimes kept for winter use, and for this
purpose they are prepared in the following manner. The fruit is cut
into four parts, the stone thrown away, and the fruit put upon a
thread, on which they are exposed to the sunshine in the open air, till
they are sufficiently dry. They are then put into a vessel for winter.
But this manner of drying them is not very good, because the rain of
this season very easily spoils and putrifies them, whilst they hang in
the open air. For this reason a different method is followed by others,
which is by far the most eligible. The peaches are as before cut into
four parts, are then either put upon a thread, or laid upon a board,
and so hung up in the air when the sun shines. Being dried in some
measure, or having lost their juice by this means, they are put into an
oven, out of which the bread has but just been taken, and are left in
it for a while. But they are soon taken out and brought into the fresh
air; and after that they are again put into the oven, and this is
repeated several times till they are as dry as they ought to be. For if
they were dried up at once in the oven, they would shrivel up too much,
and lose part of their flavour. They are then put up and kept for the
winter. They are either baked into tarts and pyes, or boiled and
prepared as dried apples and pears are in Sweden. Several people here
dry and preserve their apples in the same manner as their peaches.

The peach trees, have, as I am told, been first planted here by the
Europeans. But at present they succeed very well, and require even less
care, than our apple and pear trees.

The orchards have seldom other fruit than apples and peaches. Pear
trees are scarce in this province, and those that had any of them, had
planted them in their orchards. They likewise have cherry trees in the
orchards, but commonly on the sides of them towards the house, or along
the enclosures. Mulberry trees are planted on some hillocks near the
house, and sometimes even in the court yards of the house. The black
walnut trees, or Juglans nigra, grow partly on hills, and in fields
near the farm-houses, and partly along the enclosures; but most
commonly in the forests. No other trees of this kind, are made use of
here. The chesnuts are left in the fields; here and there is one in a
dry field or in a wood.

The Hibiscus esculentus, or Okra, [9] is a plant which grows wild in
the West Indies, but is planted in the gardens here. The fruit, which
is a long pod, is cut whilst it is green, and boiled in soups, which
thereby become as thick as pulse. This dish is reckoned a dainty by
some people, and especially by the negroes.

Capsicum annuum, or Guinea pepper is likewise planted in gardens. When
the fruit is ripe it is almost entirely red, it is put to a roasted or
boiled piece of meat, a little of it being strewed upon it, or mixed
with the broth. Besides this, cucumbers are pickled with it. Or the
pods are pounded whilst they are yet tender, and being mixed with salt
are preserved in a bottle; and this spice is strewed over roasted or
boiled meat, or fried fish, and gives them a very fine taste. But the
fruit by itself is as biting as common pepper.

This country contains many species of the plant, which Dr. Linnæus
calls Rhus, and the most common is the Rhus foliis pinnatis serratis
lanceolates retrinque nudis, or the Rhus glabra. The English call this
plant Sumach. But the Swedes here, have no particular name for it, and
therefore make use of the English name. Its berries or fruits are red.
They are made use of for dying, and afford a colour like their own.
This tree is like a weed in this country, for if a corn-field is left
uncultivated for some few years together, it grows on it in plenty,
since the berries are spread every where by the birds. And when the
ground is to be ploughed the roots stop the plough very much. The fruit
stays on the shrub during the whole winter. But the leaves drop very
early in autumn, after they are turned reddish, like those of our
Swedish mountain ash. The branches boiled with the berries afford a
black ink like tincture. The boys eat the berries, there being no
danger of falling sick after the repast; but they are very sour. They
seldom grow above three yards high. On cutting the stem, it appears
that it contains nothing but pith. I have cut several in this manner,
and found that some were ten years old; but that most of them were
above one year old. When the cut is made, a yellow juice comes out
between the bark and the wood. One or two of the most outward circles
are white, but the innermost are of a yellowish green. It is easy to
distinguish them one from another. They contain a very plentiful pith,
the diameter of which is frequently half an inch, and sometimes more.
It is brown, and so loose that it is easily pushed out by a little
stick, in the same manner as the pith of the elder tree, raspberry and
blackberry bushes. This sumach grows near the enclosures, round the
corn-fields, but especially on fallow ground. The wood seemed to burn
well, and made no great crackling in the fire.

September the 20th. In the morning we walked in the fields and woods
near the town, partly for gathering seeds, and partly for gathering
plants for my herbal, which was our principal occupation; and in the
autumn of this year, we sent part of our collection to England and
Sweden.

A species of Rhus, which was frequent in the marshes here was called
the poison tree by both English and Swedes. Some of the former gave it
the name of swamp-sumach, and my country-men gave it the same name. Dr.
Linnæus in his botanical works calls it Rhus Vernix. Sp. pl. 1. 380.
Flora Virgin. 45. An incision being made into the tree, a whitish
yellow juice, which has a nauseous smell, comes out between the bark
and the wood. This tree is not known for its good qualities, but
greatly so for the effect of its poison, which though it is noxious to
some people, yet does not in the least affect others. And therefore one
person can handle the tree as he pleases, cut it, peel off its bark,
rub it, or the wood upon his hands, smell at it, spread the juice upon
his skin, and make more experiments, with no inconvenience to himself;
another person on the contrary dares not meddle with the tree, while
its wood is fresh, nor can he venture to touch a hand which has handled
it, nor even to expose himself to the smoak of a fire which is made
with this wood, without soon feeling its bad effects; for the face, the
hands, and frequently the whole body swells excessively, and is
affected with a very accute pain. Sometimes bladders or blisters arise
in great plenty, and make the sick person look as if he was infected by
a leprosy. In some people the external thin skin, or cuticle, peels of
in a few days, as is the case when a person has scalded or burnt any
part of his body. Nay, the nature of some persons will not even allow
them to approach the place where the tree grows, or to expose
themselves to the wind, when it carries the effluvia or exhalations of
this tree with it, without letting them feel the inconvenience of the
swelling, which I have just now described. Their eyes are sometimes
shut up for one, or two and more days together by the swelling. I know
two brothers, one of whom could without danger handle this tree in what
manner he pleased, whereas the other could not come near it without
swelling. A person sometimes does not know that he has touched this
poisonous plant, or that he has been near it, before his face and hands
shews it by their swelling. I have known old people who were more
afraid of this tree than of a viper; and I was acquainted with a person
who merely by the noxious exhalations of it was swelled to such a
degree, that he was as stiff as a log of wood, and could only be turned
about in sheets.

On relating in the winter of the year 1750, the poisonous qualities of
the swamp sumach to my Yungstrœm, who attended me on my travels, he
only laughed, and looked upon the whole as a fable, in which opinion he
was confirmed by his having often handled the tree the autumn before,
cut many branches of it, which he had carried for a good while in his
hand in order to preserve its seeds, and put many into the herbals, and
all this, without feeling the least inconvenience. He would therefore,
being a kind of philosopher in his own way, take nothing for granted of
which he had no sufficient proofs, especially as he had his own
experience in the summer of the year 1749, to support the contrary
opinion. But in the next summer his system of philosophy was
overturned. For his hands swelled and he felt a violent pain, and
itching in his eyes as soon as he touched the tree, and this
inconvenience not only attended him when he meddled with this kind of
sumach, but even when he had any thing to do with the Rhus radicans, or
that species of sumach which climbs along the trees, and is not by far
so poisonous as the former. By this adventure he was so convinced of
the power of the poison tree, that I could not easily persuade him to
gather more seeds of it for me. But he not only felt the noxious
effects of it in summer when he was very hot, but even in winter when
both he and the wood were cold. Hence it appears that though a person
be secured against the power of this poison for some time, yet that in
length of time he may be affected with it as well, as people of a
weaker constitution.

I have likewise tried experiments of every kind with the poison tree on
myself. I have spread its juice upon my hands, cut and broke its
branches, peeled off its bark, and rubbed my hands with it, smelt at
it, carried pieces of it in my bare hands, and repeated all this
frequently, without feeling the baneful effects so commonly annexed to
it; but I however once experienced that the poison of the sumach was
not entirely without effect upon me. On a hot day in summer, as I was
in some degree of perspiration, I cut a branch of the tree, and carried
it in my hand for about half an hour together, and smelt at it now and
then. I felt no effects from it, till in the evening. But next morning
I awoke with a violent itching of my eye-lids, and the parts
thereabouts, and this was so painful, that I could hardly keep my hands
from it. It ceased after I had washed my eyes for a while, with very
cold water. But my eye-lids were very stiff all that day. At night the
itching returned, and in the morning as I awoke, I felt it as ill as
the morning before, and I used the same remedy against it. However it
continued almost for a whole week together, and my eyes were very red,
and my eye-lids were with difficulty moved, during all that time. My
pain ceased entirely afterwards. About the same time, I had spread the
juice of the tree very thick upon my hand. Three days after they
occasioned blisters, which soon went off without affecting me much. I
have not experienced any thing more of the effects of this plant, nor
had I any desire so to do. However I found that it could not exert its
power upon me, when I was not perspiring.

I have never heard that the poison of this Sumach has been mortal; but
the pain ceases after a few days duration. The natives formerly made
their flutes of this tree, because it has a great deal of pith. Some
people assured me, that a person suffering from its noisome
exhalations, would easily recover by spreading a mixture of the wood,
burnt to charcoal, and hog’s lard, upon the swelled parts. Some
asserted that they had really tried this remedy. In some places this
tree is rooted out on purpose, that its poison may not affect the
workmen.

I received to day, several curiosities belonging to the mineral
kingdom, which were collected in the country. The following were those
which were most worth attention. The first was a white, and quite
transparent crystal. [10] Many of this kind are found in Pensylvania,
in several kinds of stone, especially in a pale-grey limestone. The
pieces are of the thickness and length of the little finger, and
commonly as transparent as possible. But I have likewise got crystals
here, of the length of a foot, and of the thickness of a middle-sized
man’s leg. They were not so transparent as the former.

The cubic Pyrites of Bishop Browallius, [11] was of a very regular
texture. But its cubes were different in size, for in some of the
cubes, the planes of the sides only amounted to a quarter of an inch,
but in the biggest cubes, they were full two inches. Some were
exceedingly glittering, so that it was very easy to be perceived that
they consisted of sulphureous pyrites. But in some one or two sides
only, glittered so well, and the others were dark-brown. Yet most of
these marcasites had this same colour on all the sides. On breaking
them they shewed the pure pyrites. They are found near Lancaster in
this province, and sometimes lie quite above the ground; but commonly
they are found at the depth of eight feet or more from the surface of
the ground, on digging wells and the like. Mr. Hesselius had several
pieces of this kind of stone, which he made use of in his work. He
first burnt them, then pounded or ground them to a powder, and at last
rubbed them still finer in the usual way, and this afforded him a fine
reddish-brown colour.

Few black pebbles are found in this province, which on the other hand
yields many kinds of marble, especially a white one, with pale-grey
bluish spots, which is found in a quarry at the distance of a few
English miles from Philadelphia, and is very good for working, though
it is not one of the finest kind of marbles. They make many tombstones
and tables, enchase chimneys and doors, floors of marble flags in the
rooms, and the like of this kind of marble. A quantity of this
commodity is shipped to different parts of America.

Muscovy glass, [12] is found in many places hereabouts, and some pieces
of it are pretty large, and as fine as those which are brought from
Russia. I have seen some of them, which were a foot and more in length.
And I have several in my collection that are nearly nine inches square.
The Swedes on their first arrival here made their windows of this
native glass.

A pale grey fine limestone, [13] of a compact texture, lies in many
places hereabouts, and affords a fine lime. Some pieces of it are so
full of fine transparent crystals, that almost half of the stone
consists of nothing else. But besides this limestone, they make lime
near the sea-shore, from oyster shells, and bring it to town in winter,
which is said to be worse for masonry, but better for white-washing,
than that which is got from the limestone.

Coals have not yet been found in Pensylvania; but people pretend to
have seen them higher up in the country among the natives. Many people
however agree that they are met with in great quantity more to the
north, near Cape Breton. [14]

The ladies make wine from some of the fruits of the land. They
principally take white and red currants for that purpose, since the
shrubs of this kind are very plentiful in the gardens, and succeed very
well. An old sailor who had frequently been in New-foundland, told me
that red currants grew wild in that country in great quantity. They
likewise make a wine of strawberries, which grow in great plenty in the
woods, but are sourer than the Swedish ones. The American blackberries,
or Rubus occidentalis, are likewise made use of for this purpose, for
they grow every where about the fields, almost as abundantly as
thistles in Sweden, and have a very agreeable taste. In Maryland a wine
is made of the wild grapes, which grow in the woods of that province.
Raspberries and cherries which are planted on purpose, and taken great
care of, likewise afford a very fine wine. It is unnecessary to give an
account of the manner of making the currant wine, for in Sweden this
art is in higher perfection than in North America.

September the 21st. The common Privet, or Ligustrum vulgare, Linn.
grows among the bushes in thickets and woods. But I cannot determine
whether it belongs to the indigenous plants, or to those which the
English have introduced, the fruits of which the birds may have
dispersed every where. The enclosures and pales are generally made here
of wooden planks and posts. But a few, good œconomists, having already
thought of sparing the woods for future times, have begun to plant
quick hedges round their fields; and to this purpose they take the
above-mentioned privet, which they plant in a little bank, which is
thrown up for it. The soil every where hereabouts is a clay mixed with
sand, and of course very loose. The privet hedges however, are only
adapted to the tameness of the cattle and other animals here; for the
hogs all have a triangular yoke about their necks, and the other cattle
are not very unruly. But in such places where the cattle break through
the enclosures, hedges of this kind would make but a poor defence. The
people who live in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, are obliged to
keep their hogs enclosed.

In the afternoon I rode with Mr. Peter Cock, who was a merchant, born
at Karlscron in Sweden, to his country seat, about nine miles from the
town, to the north-west.

The country on both sides of the road was covered with a great forest.
The trees were all with annual leaves, and I did not see a single fir
or pine. Most of the trees were different sorts of oak. But we likewise
saw chesnut trees, walnut trees, locust trees, apple trees, hiccory,
blackberry bushes, and the like. The ground ceased to be so even as it
was before, and began to look more like the English ground, diversified
with hills and vallies. We found neither mountains nor great stones,
and the wood was so much thinned, and the ground so uniformly even,
that we could see a great way between the trees, under which we rode
without any inconvenience; for there were no bushes to stop us. In some
places where the soil was thrown up, we saw some little stones of that
kind of which the houses here are so generally built. I intend to
describe them in the sequel.

As we went on in the wood, we continually saw at moderate distances
little fields, which had been cleared of the wood. Each of these was a
farm. These farms were commonly very pretty, and a walk of trees
frequently led from them to the high-road. The houses were all built of
brick, or of the stone which is here every where to be met with. Every
countryman, even though he were the poorest peasant, had an orchard
with apples, peaches, chesnuts, walnuts, cherries, quinces, and such
fruits, and sometimes we saw the vines climbing along them. The vallies
were frequently provided with little brooks which contained a crystal
stream. The corn on the sides of the road, was almost all mown, and no
other grain besides maize and buckwheat was standing. The former was to
be met with near each farm, in greater or lesser quantities; it grew
very well and to a great length, the stalks being from six to ten foot
high and covered with fine green leaves. Buckwheat likewise was not
very uncommon, and in some places the people were beginning to reap it.
I intend in the sequel to be more particular about the qualities and
use of these kinds of corn.

After a ride of six English miles, we came to Germantown; this town has
only one street, but is near two English miles long. It is for the
greatest part inhabited by Germans, who from time to time come from
their country to North America, and settle here, because they enjoy
such privileges, as they are not possessed of any where else. Most of
the inhabitants are tradesmen, and make almost every thing in such
quantity and perfection, that in a short time this province will want
very little from England, its mother country. Most of the houses were
built of the stone which is mixed with glimmer, and found every where
towards Philadelphia, but is more scarce further on. Several houses
however were made of brick. They were commonly two stories high, and
sometimes higher. The roofs consisted of shingles of the white cedar
wood. Their shape resembled that of the roofs in Sweden, but the angles
they formed at the top were either obtuse, right angled, or acute,
according as the slopes were steep or easy. They sometimes formed
either the half of an octogon, or the half of a dodecagon.

Many of the roofs were made in such a manner, that they could be walked
upon, having a balustrade round them. Many of the upper stories had
balconies before them, from whence the people had a prospect into the
street. The windows, even those in the third story, had shutters. Each
house had a fine garden. The town had three churches, one for the
lutherans, another for the reformed protestants, and the third for the
quakers. The inhabitants were so numerous, that the street was always
full. The baptists have likewise a meeting-house.

September the 22d. After I had been at church, I employed the remainder
of the day in conversing with the most considerable people in town, who
had lived here for a long while, and I enquired into the curiosities
hereabouts.

Mr. Cock had a fine spring near his country seat; it came from a sandy
hill, and afforded water enough constantly to fill a little brook. Just
above this spring Mr. Cock had erected a building from those
above-mentioned glittering stones, into which were put many jugs, and
other earthen vessels full of milk; for it kept very well in cold water
during the great heat with which the summer is attended here.

I afterwards met with many houses which were situated like this on
springs, and therefore were destined to keep the meat and milk fresh.

Almost all the enclosures round the corn-fields and meadows hereabouts,
were made of planks fastened in a horizontal direction. I only
perceived a hedge of privet in one single place. The enclosures were
not made like ours, for the people here take posts from four to six
feet in height, and make two or three holes into them, so that there
was a distance of two feet and above between them. Such a post does the
same service as two, and sometimes three poles are scarce sufficient.
The posts were fastened in the ground, at two or three fathoms distance
from each other, and the holes in them kept up the planks, which were
nine inches, and sometimes a foot broad, and lay above each other from
one post to the next. Such an enclosure therefore looked at a distance
like the hurdles in which we enclose the sheep at night in Sweden. They
were really no closer than hurdles, being only destined to keep out the
greater animals, such as cows and horses. The hogs are kept near the
farm-houses every where about Philadelphia, and therefore this
enclosure does not need to be made closer on their account. Chesnut
trees were commonly made use of for this purpose, because this wood
keeps longest against putrefaction, and an enclosure made of it can
stand for thirty years together. But where no chesnut wood was to be
got, the white, and likewise the black oaks were taken for that
purpose. Of all kinds of wood, that of the red cedar holds out the
longest. The greatest quantity of it is brought up here; for near
Philadelphia it is not plentiful enough, to be made use of for
enclosures; however there are many enclosures near the town made of
this wood.

The best wood for fuel in every body’s opinion is the hiccory, or a
species of walnut; for it heats well; but is not good for enclosures,
since it cannot well withstand putrefaction when it is in the open air.
The white and black oaks are next in goodness for fuel. The woods with
which Philadelphia is surrounded, would lead one to conclude, that fuel
must be cheap there. But it is far from being so, because the great and
high forest near the town is the property of some people of quality and
fortune, who do not regard the money which they could make of them.
They do not sell so much as they require for their own use, and much
less would they sell it to others. But they leave the trees for times
to come, expecting that wood will become much more scarce. However they
sell it to joiners, coach-makers, and other artists, who pay
exorbitantly for it. For a quantity of hiccory of eight foot in length,
and four in depth, and the pieces being likewise four foot long, they
paid at present eighteen shillings of Pensylvanian currency. But the
same quantity of oak only came to twelve shillings. The people who came
at present to sell wood in the market were peasants, who lived at a
great distance from the town. Every body complained that fuel in the
space of a few years, was risen in price to many times as much again as
it had been, and to account for this, the following reasons were given:
the town is encreased to such a degree, as to be four or six times
bigger, and more populous than what some old people have known it to
be, when they were young. Many brick-kilns have been made hereabouts,
which require a great quantity of wood. The country is likewise more
cultivated than it used to be, and consequently great woods have been
cut down for that purpose; and the farms built in those places likewise
consume a quantity of wood. Lastly, they melt iron out of the ore, in
several places about the town, and this work always goes on without
interruption. For these reasons it is concluded in future times
Philadelphia will be obliged to pay a great price for wood.

The wine of blackberries, which has a very fine taste, is made in the
following manner. The juice of the blackberries is pressed out, and put
into a vessel; with half a gallon of this juice, an equal quantity of
water is well mixed. Three pounds of brown sugar are added to this
mixture, which must then stand for a while, and after that, it is fit
for use. Cherry wine is made in the same manner, but care must be taken
that when the juice is pressed out, the stones be not crushed, for they
give the wine a bad taste.

They make brandy from peaches here, after the following method. The
fruit is cut asunder, and the stones are taken out. The pieces of fruit
are then put into a vessel, where they are left for three weeks or a
month, till they are quite putrid. They are then put into the
distilling vessel, and the brandy is made and afterwards distilled over
again. This brandy is not good for people who have a more refined
taste, but it is only for the common kind of people, such as workmen
and the like.

Apples yield a brandy, when prepared in the same manner as the peaches.
But for this purpose those apples are chiefly taken, which fall from
the tree before they are ripe.

The American Night-shade, or Phytolacca decandra, Linn. S. N. grows
abundantly near the farms, on the highroad in hedges and bushes, and in
several places in the fields. Whenever I came to any of these places I
was sure of finding this plant in great abundance. Most of them had red
berries, which grew in bunches, and looked very tempting, though they
were not at all fit for eating. Some of these plants were yet in
flower. In some places, such as in the hedges, and near the houses,
they sometimes grow two fathom high. But in the fields were always low;
yet I could no where perceive that the cattle had eaten of it. A German
of this place who was a confectioner told me, that the dyers gathered
the roots of this plant and made a fine red dye of them.

Here are several species of Squirrels. The ground Squirrels, or Sciurus
striatus, Linn. S. N. are commonly kept in cages, because they are very
pretty: but they cannot he entirely tamed. The greater Squirrels, or
Sciurus cinereus, Linn. S. N. frequently do a great deal of mischief in
the plantations, but particularly destroy the maize. For they climb up
the stalks, cut the ears in pieces and eat only the loose and sweet
kernel which lies quite in the inside. They sometimes come by hundreds
upon a maize-field, and then destroy the whole crop of a countryman in
one night. In Maryland therefore every one is obliged annually to bring
four squirrels, and their heads are given to the surveyor, to prevent
deceit. In other provinces every body that kills squirrels, received
twopence a piece for them from the public, on delivering the heads.
Their flesh is eaten and reckoned a dainty. The skins are sold, but are
not much esteemed. Squirrels are the chief food of the rattle-snake and
other snakes, and it was a common fancy with the people hereabouts,
that when the rattle snake lay on the ground, and fixed its eyes upon a
squirrel, the latter would be as it were fascinated, and that though it
were on the uppermost branches of a tree, yet it would come down by
degrees, till it leaped into the snake’s mouth. The snake then licks
the little animal several times, and makes it wet all over with its
spittle, that it may go down the throat easier. It then swallows the
whole squirrel at once. When the snake has made such a good meal, it
lies down to rest without any concern.

The quadruped, which Dr. Linnæus in the memoirs of the Royal Academy of
Sciences, has described by the name of Ursus cauda elongata, and which
he calls Ursus Lotor, in his Systema Naturæ, is here called Raccoon. It
is found very frequently, and destroys many chickens. It is hunted by
dogs, and when it runs upon a tree to save itself, a man climbs upon
the tree after it, and shakes it down to the ground, where the dogs
kill it. The flesh is eaten, and is reputed to taste well. The bone of
its male parts is made use of for a tobacco-stopper. The hatters
purchase their skins, and make hats out of the hair, which are next in
goodness to beavers. The tail is worn round the neck in winter, and
therefore is likewise valuable. The Raccoon is frequently the food of
snakes.

Some Englishmen asserted that near the river Potomack in Virginia, a
great quantity of oyster shells were to be met with, and that they
themselves had seen whole mountains of them. The place where they are
found is said to be about two English miles distant from the sea-shore.
The proprietor of that ground burns lime out of them. This stratum of
oyster-shells is two fathom and more deep. Such quantities of shells
have likewise been found in other places, especially in New York, on
digging in the ground; and in one place, at the distance of some
English miles from the sea, avast quantity of oyster-shells, and of
other shells was found. Some people conjectured that the natives had
formerly lived in that place, and had left the shells of the oysters
which they had consumed, in such great heaps. But others could not
conceive how it happened that they were thrown in such immense
quantities all into one place.

Every one is of opinion that the American savages were a very
good-natured people, if they were not attacked. No body is so strict in
keeping his word as a savage. If any one of their allies come to visit
them, they shew him more kindness, and greater endeavours to serve him,
than he could have expected from his own countrymen. Mr. Cock gave me
the following relation, as a proof of their integrity. About two years
ago, an English merchant travelling amongst the savages, in order to
sell them necessaries, and to buy other goods, was secretly killed,
without the murderer’s being found out. But about a year after, the
savages found out the guilty person amongst themselves. They
immediately took him up, bound his hands on his back, and thus sent him
with a guard to the governor at Philadelphia, and sent him word, that
they could no longer acknowledge this wretch (who had been so wicked
towards an Englishman) as their countryman, and therefore would have
nothing more to do with him, and that they delivered him up to the
governor, to be punished for his villainy as the laws of England
direct. This Indian was afterwards hanged at Philadelphia.

Their good natural parts are proved by the following account, which
many people have given me as a true one. When they send their
ambassadors to the English colonies, in order to settle things of
consequence with the governor, they sit down on the ground, as soon as
they come to his audience, and hear with great attention the governor’s
demands which they are to make an answer to. His demands are sometimes
many. Yet they have only a stick in their hand, and make their marks on
it with a knife, without writing any thing else down. But when they
return the next day to give in their resolutions, they answer all the
governor’s articles in the same order, in which he delivered them,
without leaving one out, or changing the order, and give such accurate
answers, as if they had an account of them at full length in writing.

Mr. Sleidorn related another story, which gave me great pleasure. He
said he had been at New York, and had found a venerable old American
savage amongst several others in an inn. This old man began to talk
with Sleidorn as soon as the liquor was getting the better of his head,
and boasted that he could write and read in English. Sleidorn therefore
desired leave to ask a question, which the old man readily granted.
Sleidorn then asked him, whether he knew who was first circumcised? and
the old man immediately answered, Father Abraham; but at the same time
asked leave to propose a question in his turn, which Sleidorn granted;
the old man then said, who was the first quaker? Sleidorn said it was
uncertain, that some took one person for it, and some another; but the
cunning old fellow told him, you are mistaken, sir; Mordecai was the
first quaker, for he would not take off his hat to Haman. Many of the
savages, who are yet heathens, are said to have some obscure notion of
the deluge. But I am convinced from my own experience, that they are
not at all acquainted with it.

I met with people here who maintained that giants had formerly lived in
these parts, and the following particulars confirmed them in this
opinion. A few years ago some people digging in the ground, met with a
grave which contained human bones of an astonishing size. The Tibia is
said to have been fourteen feet long, and the os femoris to have
measured as much. The teeth are likewise said to have been of a size
proportioned to the rest, But more bones of this kind have not yet been
found. Persons skilled in anatomy, who have seen these bones, have
declared that they were human bones. One of the teeth has been sent to
Hamburgh, to a person who collected natural curiosities. Among the
savages, in the neighbourhood of the place where the bones were found,
there is an account handed down through many generations from fathers
to children, that in this neighbourhood, on the banks of a river, there
lived a very tall and strong man, in ancient times, who carried the
people over the river on his back, and waded in the water, though it
was very deep. Every body to whom he did this service gave him some
maize, some skins of animals, or the like. In fine he got his
livelyhood by this means, and was as it were the ferryman of those who
wanted to pass the river.

The soil here consists for the greatest part of sand, which is more or
less mixed with clay. Both the sand and the clay, are of the colour of
pale bricks. To judge by appearance the ground was none of the best;
and this conjecture was verified by the inhabitants of the country.
When a corn-field has been obliged to bear the same kind of corn for
three years together, it does not after that produce any thing at all
if it be not well manured, or fallowed for some years. Manure is very
difficult to be got, and therefore people rather leave the field
uncultivated. In that interval it is covered with all sorts of plants
and trees; and the countryman in the mean while, cultivates a piece of
ground which has till then been fallow, or he chuses a part of the
ground which has never been ploughed before, and he can in both cases
be pretty sure of a plentiful crop. This method can here be used with
great convenience. For the soil is loose, so that it can easily be
ploughed, and every countryman has commonly a great deal of land for
his property. The cattle here are neither housed in winter, nor tended
in the fields, and for this reason they cannot gather a sufficient
quantity of dung.

All the cattle has been originally brought over from Europe. The
natives have never had any, and at present few of them care to get any.
But the cattle degenerates by degrees here, and becomes smaller. For
the cows, horses, sheep, and hogs, are all larger in England, though
those which are brought over are of that breed. But the first
generation decreases a little, and the third and fourth is of the same
size with the cattle already common here. The climate, the soil, and
the food, altogether contribute their share towards producing this
change.

It is remarkable that the inhabitants of the country, commonly sooner
acquire understanding, but likewise grow sooner old than the people in
Europe. It is nothing uncommon to see little children, giving sprightly
and ready answers to questions that are proposed to them, so that they
seem to have as much understanding as old men. But they do not attain
to such an age as the Europeans, and it is almost an unheard of thing,
that a person born in this country, should live to be eighty or ninety
years of age. But I only speak of the Europeans that settled here. For
the savages, or first inhabitants, frequently attained a great age,
though at present such examples are uncommon, which is chiefly
attributed to the great use of brandy, which the savages have learnt of
the Europeans. Those who are born in Europe attain a greater age here,
than those who are born here, of European parents. In the last war, it
plainly appeared that these new Americans were by far less hardy than
the Europeans in expeditions, sieges, and long sea voyages, and died in
numbers. It is very difficult for them to use themselves to a climate
different from their own. The women cease bearing children sooner than
in Europe. They seldom or never have children, after they are forty or
forty-five years old, and some leave off in the thirtieth year of their
age. I enquired into the causes of this, but no one could give me a
good one. Some said it was owing to the affluence in which the people
live here. Some ascribed it to the inconstancy and changeableness of
the weather, and believed that there hardly was a country on earth in
which the weather changes so often in a day, as it does here. For if it
were ever so hot, one could not be certain whether in twenty-four hours
there would not be a piercing cold. Nay, sometimes the weather will
change five or six times a day.

The trees in this country have the same qualities as its inhabitants.
For the ships which are built of American wood, are by no means equal
in point of strength, to those which are built in Europe. This is what
nobody attempts to contradict. When a ship which is built here, has
served eight or twelve years it is worth little; and if one is to be
met with, which has been in use longer and is yet serviceable, it is
reckoned very astonishing. It is difficult to find out the causes from
whence this happens. Some lay the fault to the badness of the wood:
others condemn the method of building the ships, which is to make them
of trees which are yet green, and have had no time to dry. I believe
both causes are joined. For I found oak, which at the utmost had been
cut down about twelve years, and was covered by a hard bark. But upon
taking off this bark, the wood below it was almost entirely rotten, and
like flour, so that I could rub it into powder between my fingers. How
much longer will not our European oak stand before it moulders?

At night we returned to Philadelphia.

September the 23d. There are no Hares in this country, but some
animals, which are a medium between our Hares and Rabbets, and make a
great devastation whenever they get into fields of cabbage and turneps.

Many people have not been able to find out why the North American
plants which are carried to Europe and planted there, for the greatest
part flower so late, and do not get ripe fruit before the frost
overtakes them, although it appears from several accounts of travels,
that the winters in Pensylvania, and more so those in New York, New
England, and Canada, are full as severe as our Swedish winters, and
therefore are much severer than those which are felt in England.
Several men of judgment charged me for this reason to examine and
enquire into this phœnomenon with all possible care. But I shall
instead of an answer, rather give a few remarks which I made upon the
climate and upon the plants of North America, and leave my readers at
liberty to draw the conclusions themselves.

1. It is true, that the winters in Pensylvania, and much more those in
the more northern provinces, are frequently as severe as our Swedish
winters, and much colder than the English ones, or those of the
southern parts of Europe. For I found at Philadelphia, which is above
twenty deg. more southerly than several provinces in Sweden, that the
thermometer of professor Celsius, fell twenty-four deg. below the
freezing point in winter. Yet I was assured that the winters I spent
here, were none of the coldest, but only common ones, which I could
likewise conclude from the Delaware’s not being frozen strong enough to
bear a carriage at Philadelphia during my stay, though this often
happens. On considering the breadth of the river which I have already
mentioned in my description of Philadelphia, and the difference between
high and low water, which is eight English feet; it will pretty plainly
appear that a very intense frost is required to cover the Delaware with
such thick ice.

2. But it is likewise true, that though the winters are severe here,
yet they are commonly of no long duration, and I can justly say, that
they do not continue above two months and sometimes even less, at
Philadelphia; and it is something very uncommon when they continue for
three months together, in so much that it is put into the gazettes.
Nearer the pole the winters are somewhat longer, and in the quite
northern parts they are as long as the Swedish winters. The daily
meteorological observations which I have made during my stay in
America, and which I intend to annex at the end of each volume of this
work, will give more light in this matter.

3. The heat in summer is excessive, and without intermission. I own I
have seen the thermometer rise to nearly the same degree at Aobo in
Finland. But the difference is, that when the thermometer of professor
Celsius rose to thirty deg. above the freezing point once in two or
three summers at Aobo, the same thermometer did not only for three
months together stand at the same degree, but even sometimes rose
higher; not only in Pensylvania, but likewise in New York, Albany, and
a great part of Canada. During the summers which I spent at
Philadelphia, the thermometer has two or three times risen to
thirty-six deg. above the freezing point. It may therefore with great
certainty be said, that in Pensylvania the greatest part of April, the
whole May, and all the following months till October, are like our
Swedish months of June and July. So excessive and continued a heat must
certainly have very great effects. I here again refer to my
meteorological observations. It must likewise be ascribed to the
effects of this heat that the common melons, the water melons, and the
pumpions of different sorts are sown in the fields without any bells or
the like put over them, and yet are ripe as early as July; further,
that cherries are ripe at Philadelphia about the 25th. of May, and that
in Pensylvania the wheat is frequently reaped in the middle of June.

4. The whole of September, and half, if not the whole of October, are
the finest months in Pensylvania, for the preceding ones are too hot.
But these represent our July and half of August. The greatest part of
the plants are in flower in September, and many do not begin to open
their flowers before the latter end of this month. I make no doubt that
the goodness of the season, which is enlivened by a clear sky, and a
tolerably hot sun-shine, greatly contributes towards this last effort
of Flora. Yet though these plants come out so late, they are quite ripe
before the middle of October. But I am not able to account for their
coming up so late in autumn, and I rather ask, why do not the Centaurea
Jacea, the Gentiana, Amarella and Centaurium of Linnæus, and the common
golden rod, or Solidago Virgaurea flower before the end of summer? or
why do the common noble liverwort, or Anemone Hepatica, the wild
violets (Viola martia, Linn.) the mezereon (Daphne Mezereum, Linn.) and
other plants shew their flowers so early in spring? It has pleased the
Almighty Creator to give to them this disposition. The weather at
Philadelphia during these months, is shewn by my meteorological tables.
I have taken the greatest care in my observations, and have always
avoided putting the thermometer into any place where the sun could
shine upon it, or where he had before heated the wall by his beams; for
in those cases my observations would certainly not have been exact. The
weather during our September and October is too well known to want an
explanation. [15]

5. However there are some spontaneous plants in Pensylvania, which do
not every year bring their seeds to maturity before the cold begins. To
these belong some species of Gentiana, of Asters, and others. But in
these too the wisdom of the Creator has wisely ordered every thing in
its turn. For almost all the plants which have the quality of flowering
so late in autumn, are perennial, or such as, though they have no seed
to propagate themselves, can revive by shooting new branches and stalks
from the same root every year. But perhaps a natural cause may be given
to account for the late growth of these plants. Before the Europeans
came into this country, it was inhabited by savage nations, who
practised agriculture but little or not at all, and chiefly lived upon
hunting and fishing. The woods therefore have never been meddled with,
except that sometimes a small part was destroyed by fire. The accounts
which we have of the first landing of the Europeans here, shew that
they found the country all over covered with thick forests. [16] From
hence it follows, that excepting the higher trees, and the plants which
grow in the water or near the shore, the rest must for the greatest
part have been obliged to grow perhaps for a thousand years together,
in a shade, either below or between the trees, and they therefore
naturally belong to those which are only peculiar to woody and shady
places. The trees in this country drop their leaves in such quantities
in autumn, that the ground is covered with them to the depth of four or
five inches. These leaves lie a good while in the next summer before
they moulder, and this must of course hinder the growth of the plants
which are under the trees, at the same time depriving them of the few
rays of the sun which can come down to them through the thick leaves at
the top of the trees. These causes joined together make such plants
flower much later than they would otherwise do. May it not therefore be
said, that in so many centuries these plants had at last contracted a
habit of coming up very late, and that it would now require a great
space of time to make them lose this habit, and use them to quicken
their growth?

September the 24th. We employed this whole day in gathering the seeds
of plants of all kinds, and in putting scarce plants into the herbal.

September the 25th. Mr. Hesselius made me a present of a little piece
of petrified wood, which was found in the ground here. It was four
inches long, one inch broad, and three lines thick. It might plainly be
seen that it had formerly been wood. For in the places where it had
been polished, all the longitudinal fibres were easily distinguishable,
so that it might have been taken for a piece of oak which was cut
smooth. My piece was part of a still greater piece. It was here thought
to be petrified hiccory. I afterwards got more of it from other people.
Mr. Lewis Evans told me that on the boundaries of Virginia, a great
petrified block of hiccory had been found in the ground, with the bark
on it, which was likewise petrified.

Mr. John Bartram is an Englishman, who lives in the country about four
miles from Philadelphia. He has acquired a great knowledge of natural
philosophy and history, and seems to be born with a peculiar genius for
these sciences. In his youth he had no opportunity of going to school.
But by his own diligence and indefatigable application he got, without
instruction, so far in Latin, as to understand all Latin books, and
even those which were filled with botanical terms. He has in several
successive years made frequent excursions into different distant parts
of North America, with an intention of gathering all sorts of plants
which are scarce and little known. Those which he found he has planted
in his own botanical garden, and likewise sent over their seeds or
fresh roots to England. We owe to him the knowledge of many scarce
plants, which he first found, and which were never known before. He has
shewn great judgment, and an attention which lets nothing escape
unnoticed. Yet with all these great qualities, he is to be blamed for
his negligence; for he did not care to write down his numerous and
useful observations. His friends at London once obliged him to send
them a short account of one of his travels, and they were very ready,
with a good intention, though not with sufficient judgment, to get this
account printed. But this book, did Mr. Bartram more harm than good;
for as he is rather backward in writing down what he knows, this
publication was found to contain but few new observations. It would not
however be doing justice to Mr. Bartram’s merit, if it were to be
judged of by this performance. He has not filled it with a thousandth
part of the great knowledge, which he has acquired in natural
philosophy and history, especially in regard to North America. I have
often been at a loss to think of the sources, from whence he got many
things which came to his knowledge. I likewise owe him many things, for
he possessed that great quality of communicating every thing he knew. I
shall therefore in the sequel, frequently mention this gentleman. For I
should never forgive myself, if I were to omit the name of the first
inventor, and claim that as my own invention, which I learnt from
another person.

Many Muscle shells, or Mytili anatini, are to be met with on the
north-west side of the town in the clay-pits, which were at present
filled with water from a little brook in the neighbourhood. These
muscles seem to have been washed into that place by the tide, when the
water in the brook was high. For these clay-pits are not old, but were
lately made. Poor boys sometimes go out of town, wade in the water, and
gather great quantities of these shells, which they sell very easily,
they being reckoned a dainty.

The Virginian Azarole with a red fruit, or Linnæus’s Cratægus Crus
galli, is a species of hawthorn, and they plant it in hedges, for want
of that hawthorn, which is commonly used for this purpose in Europe.
Its berries are red, and of the same size, shape, and taste with those
of our hawthorn. Yet this tree does not seem to make a good hedge, for
its leaves were already fallen, whilst other trees still preserved
theirs. Its spines are very long and sharp; their length being two or
three inches. These spines are applied to some inconsiderable use. Each
berry contains two stones.

Mr. Bartram assured me, that the North American oak, cannot resist
putrefaction for near such a space of time, as the European. For this
reason, the boats (which carry all sorts of goods down from the upper
parts of the country) upon the river Hudson, which is one of the
greatest in these parts, are made of two kinds of wood. That part which
must always be under water, is made of black oak; but the upper part,
which is now above and now under water, and is therefore more exposed
to putrefaction, is made of red cedar or Juniperus Virginiana, which is
reckoned the most hardy wood in the country. The bottom is made of
black oak, because that wood is very tough. For the river being full of
stones, and the boats frequently running against them, the black oak
gives way, and therefore does not easily crack. But the cedar would not
do for this purpose; because it is hard and brittle. The oak likewise
is not so much attacked by putrefaction, when it is always kept under
water.

In autumn, I could always get good pears here; but every body
acknowledged, that this fruit would not succeed well in the country.

All my observations and remarks on the qualities of the Rattle-snake,
are inserted in the Memoirs of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, for the
year 1752, p. 316, and for the year 1753, p. 54, and thither I refer
the reader. [17]

Bears are very numerous higher up in the country, and do much mischief.
Mr. Bartram told me, that when a bear catches a cow, kills her in the
following manner: he bites a hole into the hide, and blows with all his
power into it, till the animal swells excessively and dies; for the air
expands greatly between the flesh and the hide. [18] An old Swede
called Nils Gustave’s son, who was ninety-one years of age, said, that
in his youth, the bears had been very frequent hereabouts, but that
they had seldom attacked the cattle: that whenever a bear was killed,
its flesh was prepared like pork, and that it had a very good taste.
And the flesh of bears is still prepared like ham, on the river Morris.
The environs of Philadelphia, and even the whole province of
Pensylvania in general contain very few bears, they having been
extirpated by degrees. In Virginia they kill them in several different
ways. Their flesh is eaten by both rich and poor, since it is reckoned
equal in goodness to pork. In some parts of this province, where no
hogs can be kept on account of the great numbers of bears, the people
are used to catch and kill them, and to use them instead of hogs. The
American bears however, are said to be less fierce and dangerous, than
the European ones.

September the 26th. The broad plantain, or Plantago major, grows on the
highroads, foot paths, meadows, and in gardens in great plenty. Mr.
Bartram had found this plant in many places on his travels, but he did
not know whether it was an original American plant, or whether the
Europeans had brought it over. This doubt had its rise from the savages
(who always had an extensive knowledge of the plants of the country)
pretending that this plant never grew here before the arrival of the
Europeans., They therefore give it a name which signifies, the
Englishman’s foot, for they say that where a European had walked, there
this plant grew in his foot steps.

The Chenopodium album, or Goosefoot with sinuated leaves, grows in
plenty in the gardens. But it is more scarce near the houses, in the
streets, on dunghills and corn-fields. This seems to shew, that it is
not a native of America, but has been brought over amongst other seeds
from Europe. In the same manner it is thought that the Tansey
(Tanacetum vulgare, Linn.) which grows here and there in the hedges, on
the roads, and near houses, was produced from European seeds.

The common vervain, with blue flowers, or verbena officinalis, was
shewn to me by Mr. Bartram, not far from his house in a little plain
near Philadelphia. It was the only place where he had found it in
America. And for this reason I suppose it was likewise sown here
amongst other European seeds.

Mr. Bartram was at this time-building a house in Philadelphia, and had
sunk a cellar to a considerable depth, the soil of which was thrown
out. I here observed the following strata. The upper loose soil was
only half a foot deep, and of a dark brown colour. Under it was a
stratum of clay so much blended with sand, that it was in greater
quantity than the clay itself; and this stratum was eight feet deep.
These were both brick coloured. The next stratum consisted of little
pebbles mixed with a coarse sand. The stones consisted either of a
clear, or of a dark Quartz; [19] they were quite smooth and roundish on
the outside, and lay in a stratum which was a foot deep. Then the
brick-coloured clay mixed with sand appeared again. But the depth of
this stratum could not be determined. Query, could the river formerly
have reached to this place and formed these strata?

Mr. Bartram has not only frequently found oyster-shells in the ground,
but likewise met with such shells and snails, as undoubtedly belong to
the sea, at the distance of a hundred and more English miles from the
shore. He has even found them on the ridge of mountains which separate
the English plantations from the habitations of the savages. These
mountains which the English call the blue mountains, are of
considerable height, and extend, in one continued chain from north to
south, or from Canada to Carolina. Yet in some places they have gaps,
which are as it were broke through, to afford a passage for the great
rivers, which roll down into the lower country.

The Cassia Chamæcrista grew on the roads the woods, and sometimes on
uncultivated fields, especially when shrubs grew in them. Its leaves
are like those of the Sensitive plant, or Mimosa, and have likewise the
quality of contracting when touched, in common with the leaves of the
latter.

The Crows in this country are little different from our common crows in
Sweden. Their size is the same with that of our crows, and they are as
black as jet in every part of their body. I saw them flying to day in
great numbers together. Their voice is not quite like that of our
crows, but has rather more of the cry of the rook, or Linnæus’s Corvus
frugilegus.

Mr. Bartram related, that on his journeys to the northern English
colonies, he had discovered great holes in the mountains on the banks
of rivers, which according to his description, must exactly have been
such giants pots, [20] as are to be met with in Sweden, and which I
have described in a particular dissertation read in the Royal Swedish
Academy of Sciences. Mr. Bartram has likewise addressed some letters to
the Royal Society at London upon this subject. For some people
pretended, that these holes were made by the savages, that they might
in time of war hide their corn and other valuable effects in them. But
he wrote against this opinion, and accounted for the origin of these
cavities in the following manner. When the ice settles, many pebbles
stick in it. In spring when the snow melts, the water in the rivers
swells so high that it reaches above the place where these holes are
now found in the mountains. The ice therefore will of course float as
high. And then it often happens, that the pebbles which were contained
in it, ever since autumn when it first settled on the banks of the
river, fall out of the ice upon the rocky bank, and are from thence
carried into a cleft or crack by the water. These pebbles are then
continually turned about by the water, which comes in upon them, and by
this means they gradually form the hole. The water at the same time
polishes the stone by its circular motion round it, and helps to make
the hole or cavity round. It is certain that by this turning and
tossing, the stone is at last unfit for this purpose; but the river
throws commonly every spring other stones instead of it into the
cavity, and they are turned round in the same manner. By this whirling
both the mountain and the stone afford either a fine or a coarse sand,
which is washed away by the water when in spring, or at other times it
is high enough to throw its waves into the cavity. This was the opinion
of Mr. Bartram about the origin of these cavities. The Royal Society of
Sciences at London, has given a favourable reception to, and approved
of them. [21] The remarks which I made in the summer of the year 1743,
during my stay at Land’s-Ort, in my country, will prove that I was at
that time of the same opinion, in regard to these holes. I have since
further explained this opinion in a letter to the Royal Academy of
Sciences; and this letter is still preserved in the Academy’s Memoirs,
which have not yet been published. But there is great reason to doubt,
whether all cavities of this kind in mountains, have the same origin.

Here are different species of Mulberry trees, which grow wild in the
forests of north and south America. In these parts the red mulberry
trees are more plentiful than any other. However Mr. Bartram assured me
that he had likewise seen the white mulberry trees growing wild, but
that they were more scarce. I asked him and several other people of
this country, why they did not set up silk manufactures, having such a
quantity of mulberries, which succeed so easily? For it has been
observed that when the berries fall upon the ground where it is not
compact but loose, they soon put out several fine delicate shoots. But
they replied that it would not be worth while to erect any silk
manufactures here, because labour is so dear. For a man gets from
eighteen pence to three shillings and upwards, for one day’s work, and
the women are paid in proportion. They were therefore of opinion that
the cultivation of all sorts of corn, of hemp, and of flax, would be of
greater advantage, and that at the same time it did not require near so
much care as the feeding of silk worms. By the trials of a governor in
Connecticut, which is a more northern province than New York, it is
evident however, that silk worms succeed very well here, and that this
kind of mulberry trees is very good for them. The governor brought up a
great quantity of silk worms in his court yard; and they succeeded so
well, and spun so much silk, as to afford him a sufficient quantity for
cloathing himself and all his family.

Several sorts of Vines likewise grow wild hereabouts. Whenever I made a
little excursion out of town, I saw them in numerous places climbing up
trees and hedges. They clasp around them, and cover them sometimes
entirely, and even hang down on the sides. This has the same appearance
at a distance, as the tendrils of hops climbing along trees. I enquired
of Mr. Bartram why they did not plant vineyards, or press wine from the
grapes of the wild vine. But they answered, that the same objection lay
against it, which lies against the erection of a silk manufacture, that
the necessary hands were too scarce, and it therefore was more rational
to make agriculture their chief employment. But the true reason
undoubtedly is, that the wine which is pressed out of most of the North
American wild grapes is sour and sharp, and has not near such an
agreeable taste, as that which is made from European grapes.

The Virginian Wake robin, or Arum Virginicum, grows in wet places. Mr.
Bartram told me, that the savages boiled the spadix and the berries of
this flower, and devoured it as a great dainty. When the berries are
raw, they have a harsh, pungent taste, which they lose in great measure
upon boiling.

The Sarothra Gentianoides, grows abundantly in the fields and under the
bushes, in a dry sandy ground near Philadelphia. It looks extremely
like our whortleberry bushes when they first begin to green, and when
the points of the leaves are yet red. Mr. Bartram has sent this plant
to Dr. Dillenius, but that gentleman did not know where he should range
it. It is reckoned a very good traumatic, and this quality Mr. Bartram
himself experienced; for being thrown and kicked by a vicious horse, in
such a manner as to have both his thighs greatly hurt, he boiled the
Sarothra and applied it to his wounds. It not only immediately appeased
his pain, which before had been very violent, but he likewise by its
assistance recovered in a short time.

Having read in Mr. Miller’s Botanical Dictionary, that Mr. Peter
Collinson had a particular Larch tree from America in his garden, I
asked Mr. Bartram whether he was acquainted with it, he answered, that
he had sent it himself to Mr. Collinson, that it only grew in the
eastern parts of New Jersey, and that he had met with it in no other
English plantation. It differs from the other species of Larch trees,
its cones being much less. I afterwards saw this tree in great plenty
in Canada.

Mr. Bartram was of opinion, that the apple tree was brought into
America by the Europeans, and that it never was there before their
arrival. But he looked upon peaches as an original American fruit, and
as growing wild in the greatest part of America. Others again were of
opinion, that they were first brought over by the Europeans. But all
the French in Canada agreed, that on the banks of the river Missisippi
and in the country thereabouts peaches were found growing wild in great
quantity. [22]

September the 27th. The tree which the English here call Persimon, is
the Diospyros Virginiana of Linnæus. It grows for the greatest part in
wet places, round the water pits. I have already mentioned that the
fruits of this tree are extremely bitter and sharp before they are
quite ripe, and that being eaten in that state they quite contract ones
mouth, and have a very disagreeable taste. But as soon as they are
ripe, which does not happen till they have been quite softened by the
frost, they are a very agreeable fruit. They are here eaten raw, and
seldom any other way. But in a great book, which contains a description
of Virginia, you meet with different ways of preparing the Persimon,
under the article of that name. Mr. Bartram, related that they were
commonly put upon the table amongst the sweet-meats, and that some
people made a tolerably good wine of them. Some of these Persimon
fruits were dropped on the ground in his garden, and were almost quite
ripe, having been exposed to a great degree of the heat of the sun. We
picked up a few and tasted them, and I must own that those who praised
this fruit as an agreeable one, have but done it justice. It really
deserves a place among the most palatable fruit of this country, when
the frost has thoroughly conquered its acrimony.

The Verbascum Thapsus, or great white Mullein, grows in great quantity
on roads, in hedges, on dry fields, and high meadows of a ground mixed
with sand. The Swedes here call it the tobacco of the savages, but
owned, that they did not know whether or no the Indians really used
this plant instead of tobacco. The Swedes are used to tie the leaves
round their feet and arms, when they have the ague. Some of them
prepared a tea from the leaves, for the dysentery. A Swede likewise
told me, that a decoction of the roots was injected into the wounds of
the cattle which are full of worms, which killed these worms, and made
them fall out. [23]

September the 28th. The meadows which are surrounded by wood, and were
at present mown, have a fine lively verdure. On the contrary when they
lie on hills, or in open fields, or in some elevated situation,
especially so that the sun may be able to act upon them without any
obstacles, their grass looks brown and dry. Several people from
Virginia told me, that on account of the great heat and drought, the
meadows and pastures almost always had a brown colour, and looked as if
they were burnt. The inhabitants of those parts do not therefore enjoy
the pleasure which a European feels at the sight of our verdant,
odoriferous meadows.

The American Nightshade, or the Phytolacca decandra, grows abundantly
in the fields, and under the trees, on little hills. Its black berries
are now ripe. We observed to day some little birds with a blue plumage,
and of the size of our Hortulans and Yellow Hammers (Emberiza
Citrinella and Emberiza Hortulanus) flying down from the trees, in
order to settle upon the nightshade and eat its berries.

Towards night I went to Mr. Bartram’s country seat.

September the 29th. The Gnaphalium margaritaceum, grows in astonishing
quantities upon all uncultivated fields, glades, hills, and the like.
Its height is different according to its different soil and situation.
Sometimes it is very ramose, and sometimes very little. It has a
strong, but agreeable smell. The English call it Life everlasting; for
its flowers, which consist chiefly of dry, shining, silvery leaves
(Folia calycina) do not change when dried. This plant is now every
where in full blossom. But some have already lost the flowers, and are
beginning to drop the seeds. The English ladies were used to gather
great quantities of this Life everlasting, and to pluck them with the
stalks. For they put them into pots with or without water, amongst
other fine flowers which they had gathered both in the gardens and in
the fields, and placed them as an ornament in the rooms. The English
ladies in general are much inclined to have fine flowers all the summer
long, in or upon the chimneys, sometimes upon a table, or before the
windows, either on account of their fine appearance, or for the sake of
their sweet scent. The Gnaphalium above-mentioned, was one of those,
which they kept in their rooms during the winter, because its flowers
never altered from what they were when they stood in the ground. Mr.
Bartram told me another use of this plant. A decoction of the flowers
and stalks is used to bathe any pained or bruised part, or it is rubbed
with the plant itself tied up in a bag.

Instead of flax several people made use of a kind of Dog’s bane, or
Linnæus’s Apocynum cannabinum. The people prepared the stalks of this
plant, in the same manner as we prepare those of hemp or flax. It was
spun and several kinds of stuffs were woven from it. The savages are
said to have had the art of making bags, fishing-nets, and the like,
for many centuries together, before the arrival of the Europeans.

I asked Mr. Bartram, whether he had observed in his travels, that the
water was fallen, and that the sea had formerly covered any places
which were now land. He told me, that from what he had experienced, he
was convinced that the greatest part of this country, even for several
miles together, had formerly been under water. The reasons which led
him to give credit to this opinion, were the following.

1. On digging in the blue mountains, which are above three hundred
English miles distant from the sea, you find loose oyster and other
sorts of shells, and they are also likewise to be met with in the
vallies formed by these mountains.

2. A vast quantity of petrified shells are found in limestone, flint,
and sandstone, on the same mountains. Mr. Bartram assured me at the
same time, that it was incredible what quantities of them there were in
the different kinds of stones of which the mountains consist.

3. The same shells are likewise dug in great quantity, quite entire and
not mouldered, in the provinces of Virginia and Maryland, as also in
Philadelphia and in New York.

4. On digging wells (not only in Philadelphia, but likewise in other
places) the people have met with trees, roots, and leaves of oak, for
the greatest part, not yet rotten, at the depth of eighteen feet.

5. The best soil and the richest mould is to be met with in the vallies
hereabouts. These vallies are commonly crossed by a rivulet or brook.
And on their declivity, a mountain commonly rises, which in those
places where the brook passes close to it, looks as if it were cut on
purpose. Mr. Bartram believed, that all these vallies formerly were
lakes; that the water had by degrees hollowed out the mountain, and
opened a passage for itself through it; and that the great quantity of
slime which is contained in the water, and which had subsided to the
bottom of the lake, was the rich soil which is at present in the
vallies, and the cause of their great fertility. But such vallies and
cloven mountains are very frequent in the country, and of this kind is
the peculiar gap between two mountains, through which a river takes its
course or boundaries of New York and Pennsylvania. The people in a jest
say, that this opening by the D—l, as he wanted to go out of
Pennsylvania into New York.

6. The whole appearance of the blue mountains, plainly shews that the
water formerly covered at part of them. For many are broken in a
peculiar manner, but the highest are plain.

7. When the savages are told, that shells are found on these high
mountains, and that from thence there is reason to believe that the sea
must formerly have extended to them, and even in part flown over them;
they answer that this is not new to them, they having a tradition from
their ancestors among them, that the sea formerly surrounded these
mountains.

8. The water in rivers and brooks likewise decreases. Mills, which
sixty years ago were built on rivers, and at that time had a sufficient
supply of water almost all the year long, have at present so little,
that they cannot be used, but after a heavy rain, or when the snow
melts in spring. This decrease of water in part arises from the great
quantity of land which is now cultivated, and from the extirpation of
great forests for that purpose.

9. The sea-shore increases likewise in time. This arises from the
quantity of sand continually thrown on shore from the bottom of the
sea, by the waves.

Mr. Bartram thought that some peculiar attention should be paid to
another thing relating to these observations. The shells which are to
be found petrified on the northern mountains, are of such kinds as at
present are not to be got in the sea, in the same latitude, and they
are not fished on the shore, till you come to South Carolina. Mr.
Bartram from hence took an occasion to defend Dr. Thomas Burnet’s
opinion, that the earth before the deluge was in a different position
towards the sun. He likewise asked whether the great bones which are
sometimes found in the ground in Siberia, and which are supposed to be
elephant’s bones and tusks, did not confirm this opinion. For at
present those animals cannot live in such cold countries; but if
according to Dr. Burnet, the sun once formed different zones about our
earth, from those it now makes, the elephant may easily be supposed to
have lived in Siberia. [24] However it seems that all which we have
hitherto mentioned, may have been the effect of different causes. To
those belong the universal deluge, the increase of land which is merely
the work of time, and the changes of the course of rivers, which when
the snow melts and in great floods, leave their first beds, and form
new ones.

At some distance from Mr. Bartram’s country house, a little brook
flowed through the wood, and likewise ran over a rock. The attentive
Mr. Bartram here shewed me several little cavities in the rock, and we
plainly saw that they must have been generated in the manner I before
described, that is, by supposing a pebble to have remained in a cleft
of the rock, and to have been turned round by the violence of the
water, till it had formed such cavity in the mountain. For on putting
our hands into one of these cavities, we found that it contained
numerous small pebbles, whose surface was quite smooth and round. And
these stones we found in each of the holes.

Mr. Bartram shewed me a number of plants which he had collected into a
herbal on his travels. Among these were the following, which likewise
grow in the northern parts of Europe, of which he had either got the
whole plants, or only broken branches.


    1. Betula alba. The common birch tree, which he had found on the
       cats-hills.
    2. Betula nana. This species of birch grows in several low places
       towards the hills.
    3. Comarum palustre, in the meadows, between the hills in New
       Jersey.
    4. Gentiana lutea, the great Gentian, from the fields near the
       mountains. It was very like our variety, but had not so many
       flowers under each leaf.
    5. Linnæa borealis, from the mountains in Canada. It creeps along
       the ground.
    6. Myrica Gale, from the neighbourhood of the river Susquehanna,
       where it grows in a wet soil.
    7. Potentilla fruticosa, from the swampy fields and low meadows,
       between the river Delaware, and the river New York.
    8. Trientalis Europæa, from the cats-hills.
    9. Triglochin maritimum, from the salt springs towards the country
       of the five nations.


Mr. Bartram shewed me a letter from East Jersey, in which he got the
following account of the discovery of an Indian grave. In the April of
the year 1744, as some people were digging a cellar, they came upon a
great stone, like a tombstone, which was at last got out with great
difficulty, and about four feet deeper under it, they met with a large
quantity of human bones and a cake of maize. The latter was yet quite
untouched, and several of the people present tasted it out of
curiosity. From these circumstances it was concluded that this was a
grave of a person of note among the savages. For it is their custom to
bury along with the deceased, meat any other things which he liked
best. The stone was eight feet long, four feet broad, and even some
inches more where it was broadest, and fifteen inches thick at one end,
but only twelve inches at the other end. It consisted of the same
coarse kind of stone, that is to be got in this country. There were no
letters nor other characters visible on it.

The corn which the Indians chiefly cultivate is the Maize, or Zea Mays,
Linn. Then have little corn fields for that purpose. But besides this,
they likewise plant a great quantity of Squashes, a species of pumpions
or melons, which they have always cultivated, even in the remotest
ages. The Europeans settled in America, got the seeds of this plant,
and at present their gardens are full of it, the fruit has an agreeable
taste when it is well prepared. They are commonly boiled, then crushed
(as we are used to do with turneps when we make a pulse of them) and
some pepper or other spice thrown upon them, and the dish is ready. The
Indians likewise sow several kinds of beans, which for the greatest
part they have got from the Europeans. But pease which they likewise
sow, they have always had amongst them, before any foreigners came into
the country. The squashes of the Indians, which now are likewise
cultivated by the Europeans, belong to those kinds of gourds
(cucurbita,) which ripen before any other. They are a very delicious
fruit, but will not keep. I have however seen them kept till pretty
laid In winter.

September the 30th. Wheat and rye are sown in autumn about this time,
and commonly reaped towards the end of June, or in the beginning of
July. These kinds of corn, however, are sometimes ready to be reaped in
the middle of June, and there are even examples that they have been
mown in the beginning of that month. Barley and oats are sown in April,
and they commonly begin to grow ripe towards the end of July.
Buck-wheat is sown in the middle or at the end of July, and is about
this time, or somewhat later, ready to be reaped. If it be sown before
the above-mentioned time, as in May, or in June, it only gives flowers,
and little or no corn.

Mr. Bartram and other people assured me, that most of the cows which
the English have here, are the offspring of those which they bought of
the Swedes when they were masters of the country. The English
themselves are said to have brought over but few. The Swedes either
brought their cattle from home, or bought them of the Dutch, who were
then settled here.

Near the town, I saw an Ivy or Hedera Helix, planted against the wall
of a stone building, which was so covered by the fine green leaves of
this plant, as almost to conceal the whole. It was doubtless brought
over from Europe, for I have never perceived it any where else on my
travels through North-America. But in its stead I have often seen wild
vines made to run up the walls.

I asked Mr. Bartram, whether he had observed, that trees and plants
decreased in proportion as they were brought further to the North, as
Catesby pretends? He answered, that the question should be more
limited, and then his opinion would prove the true one. There are some
trees which grow better in southern countries, and become less as you
advance to the north. Their seeds or berries are sometimes brought into
colder climates by birds and by other accidents. They gradually
decrease in growth, till at last they will not grow at all. On the
other hand, there are other trees and herbs which the wise Creator
destined for the northern countries, and they grow there to an amazing
size. But the further they are transplanted to the south, the less they
grow; till at last they degenerate so much as not to be able to grow at
all. Other plants love a temperate climate, and if they be carried
either south or north, they will not succeed well, but always decrease.
Thus for example Pensylvania contains some trees which grow exceedingly
well, but always decrease in proportion as they are carried further off
either to the north, or to the south.

I afterwards on my travels, had frequent proofs of this truth. The
Sassafras, which grows in Pensylvania, under forty deg. of lat. and
becomes a pretty tall and thick tree, was so little at Oswego and Fort
Nicholson, between forty-three. and forty-four deg. of lat. that it
hardly reached the height of two or four feet, and was seldom so thick
as the little finger of a full grown person. This was likewise the case
with the Tulip tree. For in Pensylvania it grows as high as our tallest
oaks and firs, and its thickness is proportionable to its height. But
about Oswego it was not above twelve feet high, and no thicker than a
man’s arm. The Sugar Maple, or Acer saccharinum, is one of the most
common trees in the woods of Canada, and grows very tall. But in the
southern provinces, as New Jersey and Pensylvania, it only grows on the
northern side of the blue mountains, and on the steep hills which are
on the banks of the river, and which are turned to the north. Yet there
it does not attain to a third or fourth part of the height which it has
in Canada. It is needless to mention more examples.

October the 1st. The gnats which are very troublesome at night here,
are called Musquetoes. They are exactly like the gnats in Sweden, only
somewhat less, and the description which is to be met with in Dr.
Linnæus’s Systema Naturæ, and Fauna Suecica, fully agrees with them,
and they are called by him Culex pipiens. In day time or at night they
come into the houses, and when the people are gone to bed they begin
their disagreeable humming, approach always nearer to the bed, and at
last suck up so much blood, that they can hardly fly away. Their bite
causes blisters in people of a delicate complexion. When the weather
has been cool for some days, the musquetoes disappear. But when it
changes again, and especially after a rain, they gather frequently in
such quantities about the houses, that their numbers are astonishing.
The chimneys of the English which have no valves for shutting them up,
afford the gnats a free entrance into the houses. In sultry evenings,
they accompany the cattle in great swarms, from the woods to the houses
or to town, and when they are drove before the houses, the gnats fly in
wherever they can. In the greatest heat of summer, they are so numerous
in some places, that the air seems to be quite full of them, especially
near swamps and stagnant waters, such as the river Morris in New
Jersey. The inhabitants therefore make a fire before their houses to
expell these disagreeable guests by the smoak. The old Swedes here,
said that gnats had formerly been much more numerous; that even at
present they swarmed in vast quantities on the sea shore near the salt
water, and that those which troubled us this autumn in Philadelphia
were of a more venomous kind, than they commonly used to be. This last
quality appeared from the blisters, which were formed on the spots,
where the gnats had inserted their sting. In Sweden I never felt any
other inconvenience from their sting, than a little itching; whilst
they sucked. But when they stung me here at night, my face was so
disfigured by little red spots and blisters, that I was almost ashamed
to shew myself.

I have already mentioned somewhat about the enclosures usual here; I
now add, that most of the planks which are put horizontally, and of
which the enclosures in the environs of Philadelphia chiefly consist,
are of the red cedar wood, which is here reckoned more durable than any
other. But where this could not be got, either white or black oak
supplied its place. The people were likewise very glad if they could
get cedar wood for the posts, or else they took white oak, or chesnut,
as I was told by Mr. Bartram. But it seems that that kind of wood in
general does not keep well in the ground for a considerable time. I saw
some posts made of chesnut wood, and put into the ground only the year
before, which were already for the greatest part rotten below.

The Sassafras tree, or Laurus Sassafras, Linn. grows in abundance in
the country, and stands scattered up and down the woods, and near
bushes and enclosures. On old grounds, which are left uncultivated, it
is one of the first that comes up, and is as plentiful as young birches
are on those Swedish fields, which are formed by burning the trees
which grew on them. [25] The sassafras grows in a dry loose ground, of
a pale brick colour, which consists for the greatest part of sand,
mixed with some clay. It seems to be but a poor soil. The mountains
round Gothenburgh, in Sweden, would afford many places rich enough for
the Sassafras to grow in, and I even fear they would be too rich. I
here saw it both in the woods amidst other trees, and more frequently
by itself along the enclosures. In both it looks equally fresh. I have
never seen it on wet or low places. The people here gather its flowers,
and use them instead of tea. But the wood itself is of no use in
œconomy; for when it is set on fire, it causes a continual crackling,
without making any good fire. The tree spreads its roots very much, and
new shoots come up from them in some places; but these shoots are not
good for transplanting, because they have so few fibres besides the
root, which connects them to the main stem, that they cannot well
strike into the ground. If therefore any one would plant Sassafras
trees he must endeavour to get their berries, which however is
difficult, since the birds eat them before they are half ripe. The cows
are very greedy after the tender new shoots, and look for them every
where.

The bark of this tree is used by the women here in dying worsted a fine
lasting orange colour, which does not fade in the sun. They use urine
instead of alum in dying, and boil the dye in a brass boiler, because
in an iron vessel it does not yield so fine a colour. A woman in
Virginia has successfully employed the berries of the Sassafras against
a great pain in one of her feet, which for three years together she had
to such a degree, that it almost hindered her from walking. She was
advised to broil the berries of sassafras, and to rub the painful parts
of her foot with the oil, which by this means would be got from the
berries. She did so, but at the same time it made her vomit; yet this
was not sufficient to keep her from following the prescription three
times more, though as often as she made use thereof, it always had the
same effect. However she was entirely freed from that pain, and
perfectly recovered.

A black Woodpecker with a red head, or the Picus pileatus, Linn. is
frequent in the Pensylvanian forests, and stays the winter, as I know
from my own experience. It is reckoned among those birds which destroy
the maize; because it settles on the ripe ears, and destroys them with
its bill. The Swedes call it Tillkroka, but all other woodpeckers,
those with gold yellow wings excepted, are called Hackspickar in the
Swedish language. I intend to describe them altogether more exactly in
a particular work. I only observe here, that almost all the different
species of woodpeckers are very noxious to the maize, when it begins to
ripen: for by picking holes in the membrane round the ear, the rain
gets into it, and causes the ear with all the corn it contains to rot.

October the 3d. In the morning I set out for Wilmington, which was
formerly called Christina by the Swedes, and is thirty English miles to
the south west of Philadelphia. Three miles behind Philadelphia I
passed the river Skulkill in a ferry, beyond which the country appears
almost a continual chain of mountains and vallies. The mountains have
an easy slope on all sides, and the vallies are commonly crossed by
brooks with crystal streams. The greater part of the country is covered
with several kinds of deciduous trees; for I scarcely saw a single tree
of the fir kind, if I except a few red cedars. The forest was high, but
open below, so that it left a free prospect to the eye, and no
under-wood obstructed the passage between the trees. It would have been
easy in some places to have gone under the branches with a carriage for
a quarter of a mile, the trees standing at great distances from each
other, and the ground being very level. In some places little glades
opened, which were either meadows, pastures, or corn-fields; of which
latter some were cultivated and others not. In a few places, several
houses were built close to each other. But for the greatest part they
were single. In part of the fields the wheat was already sown, in the
English manner without trenches, but with furrows pretty close
together. I sometimes saw the country people very busy in sowing their
rye. Near every farm-house was a little field with maize. The
inhabitants hereabouts were commonly either English or Swedes.

All the day long I saw a continual variety of trees; walnut trees of
different sorts, which were all full of nuts; chesnut trees quite
covered with fine chesnuts; mulberries, sassafras, liquidambar, tulip
trees, and many others.

Several species of vines grew wild hereabouts. They run up to the
summits of the trees, their clusters of grapes and their leaves
covering the stems. I even saw some young oaks five or six fathoms
high, whose tops were crowned with vines. The ground is that which is
so common hereabouts, which I have already described, viz. a clay mixed
with a great quantity of sand, and covered with a rich soil or
vegetable earth. The vines are principally seen on trees which stand
single in corn-fields, and at the end of woods, where the meadows,
pastures, and fields begin, and likewise along the enclosures, where
they cling with their tendrils round the trees which stand there. The
lower parts of the plant are full of grapes, which hang below the
leaves, and were now almost ripe, and had a pleasant sourish taste. The
country people gather them in great quantities, and sell them in the
town. They are eaten without further preparation, and commonly people
are presented with them when they come to pay a visit.

The soil does not seem to be deep hereabouts; for the upper black
stratum is hardly two inches. This I had an occasion to see both in
such places where the ground is dug up, and in such where the water,
during heavy flowers of rain, has made cuts, which are pretty numerous
here. The upper soil has a dark colour, and the next a pale colour like
bricks. I have observed everywhere in America, that the depth of the
upper soil does not by far agree with the computation of some people,
though we can almost be sure, that in some places it never was stirred
since the deluge. I shall be more particular in this respect
afterwards. [26]

The Datura Stramonium, or Thorn Apple, grows in great quantities near
all the villages. Its height is different according to the soil it is
in. For in a rich soil it grows eight or ten feet high, but in a hard
and poor ground, it will seldom come up to six inches. This Datura,
together with the Phytolacca, or American Nightshade, grow here in
those places near the gardens, houses, and roads, which in Sweden are
covered with nettles and goose-foot, which European plants are very
scarce in America. But the Datura and Phytolacca are the worst weeds
here, nobody knowing any particular use of them.

Turnep-fields are sometimes to be seen. In the middle of the highroad I
perceived a dead black snake, which was four feet six inches long, and
an inch and a half in thickness. It belonged to the viper kind.

Late at night a great Halo appeared round the moon. The people said
that it prognosticated either a storm, or rain, or both together. The
smaller the ring is, or the nearer it comes to the moon, the sooner
this weather sets in. But this time neither of these changes happened,
and the halo had foretold a coldness in the air.

I saw to-day the Chermes of the alder (Chermes Alni) in great abundance
on the branches of that tree, which for that reason looks quite white,
and at a distance appears as it were covered with mould.

October the 4th. I continued my journey early in the morning, and the
country still had the same appearance as I went on. It was a continual
chain of pretty high hills, with an easy ascent on all sides, and of
vallies between them. The soil consisted of a brick coloured mould,
mixed with clay, and a few pebbles, I rode sometimes through woods of
several sorts of trees, and sometimes amidst little fields, which had
been cleared of the wood, and which at present were corn-fields,
meadows, and pastures. The farm-houses stood single, sometimes near the
roads, and sometimes at a little distance from them, so that the space
between the road and the houses was taken up with little fields and
meadows. Some of the houses were built of stone, two stories high, and
covered with shingles of the white cedar. But most of the houses were
wooden, and the crevices stopped up with clay, instead of moss, which
we make use of for that purpose. No valves were to be met with in the
chimneys, and the people even did not know what I meant by them. The
ovens were commonly built up at some distance from the houses, and were
either under a roof, or without any covering against the weather. The
fields bore partly buck-wheat, which was not yet cut, partly maize, and
partly wheat, which was but lately sown; but sometimes they lay fallow.
The vines climbed to the top of several trees, and hung down again on
both sides. Other trees again were surrounded by the ivy (Hedera
quinquefolia) which with the same flexibility ascended to a great
height. The Smilax laurifolia always joined with the ivy, and together
with it twisted itself round the trees. The leaves of the ivy were at
this time commonly reddish, but those of the vine were still quite
green. The trees which were surrounded with them, looked at a distance
like those which are covered with hops in our country, (and on seeing
them from afar off, one might expect to find wild hops climbing upon
the trees.) Walnut and chesnut trees were common near enclosures, in
woods, and on hills, and at present were loaded with their fruit. The
persimon was likewise plentiful near the roads, and in the woods. It
had a great quantity of fruit, but they were not yet fit for eating,
since the frost had not softened them. At some distance from
Wilmington, I passed a bridge over a little river, which falls north
into the Delaware. The rider pays here twopence toll for himself and
his horse.

Towards noon I arrived at Wilmington.

Wilmington is a little town, about thirty English miles south-west from
Philadelphia. It was founded in the year 1733. Part of it stands upon
the grounds belonging to the Swedish church, which annually receives
certain rents, out of which they pay the minister’s salary, and employ
the rest for other uses. The houses are built of stone, and look very
pretty; yet they are not built close together, but large open places
are left between them. The quakers have a meeting-house in this town.
The Swedish church, which I intend to mention in the sequel, is half a
mile out of town eastwards. The parsonage is under the same roof with
the church. A little river called Christina-kill passes by the town,
and from thence falls into the Delaware. By following its banks one
goes three miles before one reaches the Delaware. The river is said to
be sufficiently deep, so that the greatest vessel may come quite up to
the town: for at its mouth or juncture with the Delaware, it is
shallowest, and yet its depth even there when the water is lowest, is
from two fathoms to two and a half. But as you go higher its depth
encreases to three, three and a half, and even four fathoms. The
largest ships therefore may safely, and with their full cargoes come
to, and from the town with the tide. from Wilmington, you have a fine
prospect of a great part of the river Delaware, and the ships sailing
on it. On both sides of the river Christina-kill, almost from the place
where the redoubt is built to its juncture with the Delaware, are low
meadows, which afford a great quantity of hay to the inhabitants. The
town carries on a considerable trade, and would have been more
enlarged, if Philadelphia and Newcastle, which are both towns of a more
ancient date, were not so near on both sides of it.

The Redoubt upon the river Christina-kill, was erected this summer,
when it was known that the French and Spanish privateers intended to
sail up the river, and to attempt a landing. It stands, according to
the accounts of the late Rev. Mr. Tranberg, on the same spot, where the
Swedes had built theirs. It is remarkable, that on working in the
ground this summer, to make this redoubt, an old Swedish silver coin of
Queen Christina, not quite so big as a shilling was found at the depth
of a yard, among some other things. The Rev. Mr. Tranberg afterwards
presented me with it. On one side were the arms of the house of Wasa
with the inscription: CHRISTINA, D. G. DE. RE. SVE. that is, Christina,
by the grace of God, elected Queen of Sweden; and near this the year of
our Lord 1633. On the reverse were these words: MONETA NOVA REGNI SVEC.
or, a new coin of the kingdom of Sweden. At the same time a number of
old iron tools, such as axes, shovels, and the like, were discovered.
The redoubt, that is now erected, consists of bulwarks of planks, with
a rampart on the outside. Near it is the powder magazine, in a vault
built of bricks. At the erection of this little fortification it was
remarkable, that the quakers, whose tenets reject even defensive war,
were as busy as the other people in building it. For the fear of being
every moment suddenly attacked by privateers, conquered all other
thoughts. Many of them scrupled to put their own hands to the work; but
forwarded, it by supplies of money, and by getting ready every thing,
which was necessary.

October the 5th. It was my design to cross the Delaware, and to get
into New Jersey with a view to get acquainted with the country; but as
there was no ferry here to bring my horse over, I set out on my return
to Philadelphia. I partly went along the high road, and partly deviated
on one or the other side of it, in order to take more exact
observations of the country, and of its natural history.

The maize, was sown in several places. In some its stalks were cut
somewhat below the ear, dried and put up in narrow high stacks, in
order to keep them as a food for the cattle in winter. The lower part
of the stalk had likewise leaves, but as they commonly dry of
themselves, the people do not like to feed the cattle with them, all
their flavour being lost: But the upper ones are cut, whilst they are
yet green.

The vallies between the hills commonly contain brooks: but they are not
very broad, and require no bridges, so that carriages and horse can
easily pass through them, for the water is seldom above six inches
deep.

The leaves of most trees were yet quite green, such as those of oaks,
chesnut trees, black walnut trees, hiccory, tulip trees, and sassafras.
The two latter species are found in plenty on the sides of the little
woods, on hills, on the fallow fields, near hedges, and on the road.
The persimon likewise had still its leaves; however some trees of this
kind had dropt them. The leaves of the American bramble were at present
almost entirely red, though some of these bushes yet retained a lively
green in the leaves. The Cornelian cherry likewise had already a
mixture of brown and pale leaves. The leaves of the red maple were also
red.

I continued my journey to Chichester, a borough upon the Delaware,
where travellers pass the river in a ferry. They build here every year
a number of small ships for sale. From an iron work which lies higher
in the country, they carry iron bars to this place, and ship them.

Canoes are boats made of one piece of wood, and are much in use with
the farmers, and other people upon the Delaware, and some little
rivers. For that purpose a very thick trunk of a tree is hollowed out;
the red juniper or red cedar tree, the white cedar, the chesnut tree,
the white oak, and the tulip tree are commonly made use of for this
purpose. The canoes made of red and white cedar are reckoned the best,
because they swim very light upon the water, and last twenty years
together. But of these, the red cedar canoes are most preferable. Those
made of chesnut trees will likewise last for a good while. But those of
white oak are hardly serviceable above six years, and also swim deep,
because they are so heavy. The Liquidambar tree, or Liquidambar
styraciflua, Linn. is big enough but unfit making canoes, because it
imbibes the water. The canoes which are made of the tulip tree, scarce
last as long as those of white oak. The size of the canoes is
different, according to the purposes they are destined for. They can
carry six persons; who however, must by no means be unruly, but sit at
the bottom of the canoe in the quietest manner possible, lest the boat
overset. The Swedes in Pensylvania and New Jersey near the rivers, have
no other boats to go to Philadelphia in, which they commonly do twice a
week on the market days, though they be several miles distant from the
town, and meet sometimes with severe storms; yet misfortunes from the
oversetting, &amp;c of these canoes are seldom heard of, though they might
well be expected on account of the small size of this kind of boats.
However a great deal of attention and care is necessary in managing the
canoes, when the wind is somewhat violent; for they are narrow, round
below, have no keel, and therefore may easily be overset. Accordingly
when the wind is more brisk than ordinary, the people make for the
land.

The common garden cresses grow in several places on the roads about
Chichester, and undoubtedly come from the seeds, which were by chance
carried out of the many gardens about that town.

The American brambles are here in great plenty. When a field is left
uncultivated, they are the first plants that appear on it; and I
frequently observed them in such fields as are annually ploughed, and
have corn sown on them. For when these bushes are once rooted, they are
not easily extirpated. Such a bush runs out tendrils sometimes four
fathoms off its root, and then throws a new root, so that on pulling it
up, you meet with roots on both ends. On some old grounds, which had
long been uncultivated, there were so many bushes of this kind, that it
was very troublesome and dangerous walking in them. A wine is made of
the berries, as I have already mentioned. The berries are likewise
eaten when they are ripe, and taste well. No other use is made of them.

October the 6th. The Chenopodium anthelminticum is very plentiful on
the road, and on the banks of the river, but chiefly in dry places in a
loose sandy soil. The English who are settled here, call it Wormseed
and Jerusalem Oak. It has a disagreeable scent. In Pensylvania and New
Jersey its seeds are given to children, against the worms, and for that
purpose they are excellent. The plant itself is spontaneous in both
provinces.

The environs of Chichester, contain many gardens, which are full of
apple trees, sinking under the weight of innumerable apples. Most of
them are winter fruit, and therefore were yet quite sour. Each farm has
a garden, and so has each house of the better sort. The extent of these
gardens is likewise not inconsiderable, and therefore affords, the
possessor all the year long, great supplies in his house-keeping, both
for eating and drinking. I frequently was surprized at the prudence of
the inhabitants of this country. As soon as one has bought a piece of
ground, which is neither built upon nor sown, his first care is to get
young apple trees, and to make a garden. He next proceeds to build his
house, and lastly prepares the uncultivated ground to receive corn. For
it is well known that the trees require many years before they arrive
to perfection, and this makes it necessary to plant them first. I now
perceived near the farms, mills, wheels, and other instruments which
are made use of in crushing the apples, in order to prepare cyder from
them afterwards.

From Chichester I went on towards Philadelphia. The oaks were the most
plentiful trees in the wood. But there were several species of them,
all different from the European ones. The swine now went about in great
herds in the oak woods, where they fed upon the acorns which fell in
great abundance from the trees. Each hog had a wooden triangular yoke
about its neck, by which it was hindered from penetrating through the
holes in the enclosures; and for this reason, the enclosures are made
very slender, and easy to put up, and do not require much wood. No
other enclosures are in use, but those which are so like sheep hurdles.
A number of squirrels were in the oak woods, partly running on the
ground, and partly leaping from one branch to another; and at this time
they chiefly fed upon acorns.

I seldom saw beach trees; but I found them quite the same with the
European ones. Their wood is reckoned very good for making joiner’s
planes of.

I do not remember seeing any other than the black Ants, or Formica
nigra in Pensylvania. They are as black as a coal, and of two sorts,
some very little, like the least of our ants, and others of the size of
our common reddish ants. I have not yet observed any hills of theirs,
but only seen some running about singly. In other parts of America, I
have likewise found other species of ants, as I intend to remark in the
sequel.

The common Privet, or Ligustrum vulgare, is made use of in many places,
as a hedge round corn-fields and gardens, and on my whole voyage, I did
not see that any other trees were made use of for this purpose, though
the Englishmen here, well know that the hawthorn makes a much better
hedge. The privet hedges grow very thick and close, but having no
spines, the hogs, and even other animals break easily through them; and
when they have once made a hole, it requires a long while before it
grows up again. But when the hedges consist of spinose bushes, the
cattle will hardly attempt to get through them.

About noon I came through Chester, a little market-town which lies on
the Delaware. A rivulet coming down out of the country, passes through
this place, and discharges itself into the Delaware. There is a bridge
over it. The houses stand dispersed. Most of them are built of stone,
and two or three stories high; some are however made of wood. In the
town is a church, and a market-place.

Wheat was now sown every where. In some places it was already green,
having been sown four weeks before. The wheat fields were made in the
English manner, having no ditches in them, but numerous furrows for
draining the water, at the distance of four or six foot from one
another. Great stumps of the trees which had been cut down, are every
where seen on the fields, and this shews that the country has been but
lately cultivated.

The roots of the trees do not go deep into the ground, but spread
horizontally. I had opportunities of observing this in several places
where the trees were dug up; for I seldom saw one, whose roots went
above a foot deep into the ground, though it was a loose soil.

About two English miles behind Chester, I passed by an iron forge,
which was to the right hand by the road side. It belonged to two
brothers, as I was told. The ore however is not dug here, but thirty or
forty miles from hence, where it is first melted in the oven, and then
carried to this place. The bellows were made of leather, and both they
and the hammers, and even the hearth, but small in proportion to ours.
All the machines were worked by water. The iron was wrought into bars.

To day I remarked, as I have since frequently seen on my travels in
this country, that horses are very greedy of apples. When they are let
into an orchard to feed upon the grass, if there are any apples on the
ground, they frequently leave the fresh green grass, and eat the
apples, which, however, are not reckoned a good food for them; and
besides that, it is too expensive.

The red Maple, or Acer rubrum is plentiful in these places. Its proper
situations are chiefly swampy, wet places, in which the alder commonly
is its companion. Out of its wood they make plates, spinning-wheels,
rolls, feet for chairs and beds, and all sorts of work. With the bark,
they dye both worsted and linnen, giving it a dark blue colour. For
that purpose it is first boiled in water; and some copperas, such as
the hat-makers and shoe-makers commonly make use of, is added, before
the stuff (which is to be dyed) is put into the boiler. This bark
likewise affords a good black ink. When the tree is felled early in
spring, a sweet juice runs out of it, like that which runs out of our
birches. This juice they do not make any use of here, but in Canada,
they make both treacle and sugar of it. Here is a variety of this tree
which they call the curled Maple, the wood being as it were marbled
within; it is much used in all kinds of joiner’s work, and the utensils
made of this wood, are preferable to those made of any other sort of
wood in the country, and are much dearer than those made of the wood of
the wild cherry trees (Prunus Virginiana) or of black walnut trees. But
the most valuable utensils were those made of curled black walnut, for
that is an excessive scarce kind of wood. The curled maple was likewise
very uncommon, and you frequently find trees, whose outsides are
marbled, but their inside not. The tree is therefore cut very deep
before it is felled, to see whether it has veins in every part.

In the evening I reached Philadelphia.

October the 7th. In the morning we crossed the Delaware in a boat to
the other side which belongs to New Jersey, each person paying
fourpence for his passage. The country here is very different from that
in Pensylvania; for here the ground is almost mere sand, but in the
other province it is mixed with a good deal of clay, and this makes the
ground pretty rich. The discoveries which I made to day of insects and
plants, I intend to mention in another work.

A soil like this in New Jersey, one might be led to think, could
produce nothing because it is so dry and poor. Yet the maize which is
planted on it grows extremely well, and we saw many fields filled with
it. The earth is of that kind in which tobacco commonly succeeds, but
it is not near so rich. The stalks of maize are commonly eight feet
high, more or less, and are full of leaves. The maize is planted as
usual in rows, in little squares, so that there is a space of five feet
and six inches between each square, both in length and breadth; on each
of these little hills three or four stalks come up, which were not yet
cut for the cattle; each stalk again has from one to four ears, which
are large and full of corn. A sandy ground could never have been better
employed. In some places the ground between the maize is ploughed, and
rye sown in it, so that when the maize is cut, the rye remains upon the
field.

We frequently saw Asparagus growing near the enclosures, in a loose
soil, on uncultivated sandy fields. It is likewise plentiful between
the maize, and was at present full of berries, but I cannot tell
whether the seeds are carried by the wind to the places where I saw
them; it is however certain, that I have likewise seen it growing wild
in other parts of America.

The Worm-seed, is likewise plentiful on the roads, in a sandy ground
such as that near the ferry opposite to Philadelphia. I have already
mentioned that it is given to children, as a remedy to carry off the
worms. It is then put into brandy, and when it has been in it for one
hour, it is taken out again, dried and given to the children, either in
beer sweetened with treacle, or in any other liquor. Its effects talked
of differently. Some people say it kills the worms, others again
pretend that it forwards their encrease. But I know by my own
experience, that this wormseed has had very good effects upon children.

The Purslain, which we cultivate in our gardens, grows wild in great
abundance in the loose soil amongst the maize. It was there creeping on
the ground, and its stalks were pretty thick and succulent; which
circumstance very justly gave reason to wonder from whence it could get
juice sufficient to supply it in such a dry ground. It is to be found
plentiful in such soil, in other places of this country.

The Bidens bipinnata, is here called Spanish Needles. It grows single
about farm houses, near roads, pales and along the hedges. It was yet
partly in flower; but for the greatest part it was already out of
blossom. When its seeds are ripe it is very disagreeable walking where
it grows. For they stick to the cloaths and make them black; and it is
difficult to discharge the black spots which they occasion. Each seed
has three spines at its extremity; and each of these again is full of
numerous little hooks, by which the seed fastens itself to the cloaths.

In the woods and along the hedges in this neighbourhood, some single
red Ants, (Formica rubra) crept about, and their antennæ or feel-horns
were as long as their bodies.

Towards night we returned to Philadelphia.

October the 8th. The shore of Pensylvania has a great quantity of the
finest oysters. About this time the people began to bring them to
Philadelphia for sale. They come from that part of the shore, which is
near the mouth of the river Delaware. They are reckoned as good as the
New York oysters, of which I shall make more particular mention
afterwards. However I thought that this latter sort of oysters was
generally larger, fatter and more palatable. It is remarkable that they
commonly became palatable at the time when the agues had left off their
fury. Some men went with whole carts full of oysters, crying them about
the streets; this is unusual here when any thing else is to be sold,
but in London it is very common. The oyster shells are thrown away,
though formerly a lime was burnt from them, which has been found
unnecessary, there being stones for burning of lime in this
neighbourhood, and the lime of oyster shells not being as good as this
other lime. The people shewed me some of houses in this town which were
built of stone, and to the mason work of which the lime of oyster
shells had been employed. The walls of these houses were always so wet
two or three days before a rain, that great drops of water could
plainly be perceived on them; and thus they were as good as
Hygrometers. [27] Several people who had lived in this kind of houses
complained of these inconveniences.

October the 9th. Pease are not much cultivated in Pensylvania at
present, though formerly, according to the accounts of some old Swedes,
every farmer had a little field with pease. In New Jersey and the
southern parts of New York, pease are likewise not so much cultivated
as they used to be. But in the northern parts of New York, or about
Albany, and in all the parts of Canada which are inhabited by the
French, the people sow great quantities, and have a plentiful crop. In
the former colonies, a little despicable insect has obliged the people
to give up so useful a part of agriculture. This little insect was
formerly little known, but a few years ago it multiplied excessively.
It couples in summer, about the time when the pease are in blossom, and
then deposites an egg into almost every one of the little pease. When
the pease are ripe, their outward appearance does not discover the
worm, which, however, is found within, when it is cut. This worm lies
in the pea, if it is not stirred during all the winter, and part of the
spring, and in that space of time consumes the greatest part of the
inside of the pea: In spring therefore little more than the mere thin
outward skin is left. This worm at last changes into an insect, of the
coleoptera class, and in that state creeps through a hole of its own
making in the husk, and flies off, in order to look for new fields of
pease, in which it may couple with its cogeneric insects, and provide
food sufficient for its posterity.

This noxious insect has spread from Pensylvania to the north. For the
country of New York, where it is common at present, has not been
plagued with it above twelve or fifteen years ago; and before that time
the people sowed pease every year without any inconvenience, and had
excellent crops. But by degrees these little enemies came in such
numbers, that the inhabitants were forced to leave off sowing of pease.
The people complained of this in several places. The country people
about Albany have yet the pleasure to see their fields of pease not
infected by these beetles, but are always afraid of their approach; as
it has been observed they come every year nearer to that province.

I know not whether this insect would live in Europe, and I should think
our Swedish winters must kill the worm, even if it be ever so deeply
inclosed in the pea; notwithstanding it is often as cold in New York
(where this insect is so abundant) as in our country, yet it continues
to multiply here every year, and proceeds always farther to the north.
I was very near bringing some of these vermin into Europe, without
knowing of it. At my departure from America, I took some sweet peas
with me in a paper, and they were at that time quite fresh and green.
But on opening the paper after my arrival at Stockholm, on August the
1st. 1751; I found all the peas hollow, and the head of an infect
peeping out of each. Some of these insects even crept out, in order to
try the weather of this new climate; but I made haste, to shut the
paper again, in order to prevent the spreading of this noxious insect.
[28] I own, that when I first perceived them, I was more frightened
than I should have been at the sight of a viper. For I at once had a
full view of the whole damage, which my dear country would have
suffered, if only two or three of these noxious insects had escaped me.
The posterity of many families, and even the inhabitants of whole
provinces, would have had sufficient reason to detest me as the cause
of so great a calamity. I afterwards sent some of them, though well
secured, to count Tessin, and to Dr. Linnæus, together with an account
of their destructive qualities. Dr. Linnæus has already inserted a
description of them in an Academical Dissertation, which has been drawn
up under his presidency, and treats of the damages made by insects.
[29] He there calls this insect the Bruchus of North-America. [30] It
was very peculiar that every pea in the paper was eaten without
exception.

When the inhabitants of Pensylvania sow pease procured from abroad,
they are not commonly attacked by these insects for the first year; but
in the next they take possession of the pea. It is greatly to be wished
that none of the ships which annually depart from New York or
Pensylvania, may bring them into the European countries. From hence the
power of a single despicable insect will plainly appear; as also, that
the study of the œconomy and of the qualities of insects, is not to be
looked upon as a mere pastime and useless employment. [31]

The Rhus radicans is a shrub or tree which grows abundantly in this
country, and has in common with the ivy, called Hedera arborea, the
quality of not growing without the support either of a tree, a wall, or
a hedge. I have seen it climbing to the very top of high trees in the
woods, and its branches shoot out every where little roots, which
fasten upon the tree and as it were enter into it. When the stem is
cut, it emits a pale brown sap of a disagreeable scent. This sap is so
sharp that the letters and characters made upon linnen with it, cannot
be got out again, but grow blacker the more the cloath is washed. Boys
commonly marked their names on their linnen with this juice. If you
write with it on paper, the letters never go out, but grow blacker from
time to time.

This species of Sumach has the same noxious qualities as the poisonous
sumach, or Poison-tree, which I have above described, being poisonous
to some people, though not to every one. Therefore all that has been
said of the poison tree is likewise applicable to this; excepting that
the former has the stronger poison. However I have seen people who have
been as much swelled from the noxious exhalations of the latter, as
they could have been from those of the former. I likewise know that of
two sisters, the one could manage the tree without being affected by
its venom, though the other immediately felt it as soon as the
exhalations of the tree came near her, or when ever she came a yard too
near the tree, and even when she stood in the way of the wind, which
blew directly from this shrub. But upon me this species of sumach has
never exherted its power, though I made above a hundred experiments
upon myself with the greatest stems, and the juice once squirted into
my eye, without doing me any harm. On another person’s hand which I had
covered very thick with it, the skin a few hours after became as hard
as a piece of tanned leather, and peeled off in the following days, as
if little scales fell from it.

October the 10th. In the morning I accompanied Mr. Cock to his country
seat, which is about nine miles from Philadelphia to the north.

Though the woods of Pensylvania afford many oaks, and more species of
them than are found further north, yet they do not build so many ships
in this province as they do in the northern ones, and especially in New
England. But experience has taught the people that the same kind of
trees is more durable the further it grows to the north, and that this
advantage decreases the more it grows in warm climates. It is likewise
plain that the trees in the south grow more every year, and form
thicker ringlets than those in the north. The former have likewise much
greater tubes for the circulation of the sap than the latter. And for
this reason they do not build so many ships in Pensylvania, as they do
in New England, though more than in Virginia and Maryland; but Carolina
builds very few, and its merchants get all their ships from New
England. Those which are here made of the best oak, hardly are
serviceable above ten, or at most twelve years; for then they are so
rotten, that no body ventures to go to sea in them, Many captains of
ships come over from England to North-America, in order to get ships
built. But most of them choose New England, that being the most
northerly province; and if they even come over in ships which are bound
for Philadelphia, they frequently on their arrival set out from
Pensylvania for New England. The Spaniards in the West Indies are said
to build their ships of a peculiar sort of cedar, which holds out
against putrefaction and wet; but it is not to be met with on the
continent in the English provinces. Here are above nine different sorts
of oak, but not one of them is comparable to the single species we have
in Sweden, with regard to its goodness. And therefore a ship of
European oak costs a great deal more than one made of American oak.

Many people who chiefly employed themselves in gardening, had found in
a succession of years, that the red Beet, which grew out of the seed
which was got from New York, became very sweet and had a very fine
taste; but that it every year lost part of its goodness, if it was
cultivated from seeds which were got here. The people were therefore
obliged to get as many seeds of red beet every year from New York, as
were wanted in their gardens. It has likewise been generally observed,
that the plants which are produced from English seeds are always much
better and more agreeable, than those which come from seeds of this
country.

In the garden of Mr. Cock was a raddish which was in the loose soil,
grown so big as to be seven inches in diameter. Every body that saw it,
owned it was uncommon to see them of such a size.

That species of Convolvulus which is commonly called Batatas, has here
the name of Bermudian potatoes. The common people, and the gentry
without distinction planted them in their gardens. This is done in the
same manner as with the common potatoes. Some people made little
hillocks, into which they put these potatoes; but others only planted
them in flat beds. The soil must be a mixture of sand and earth, and
neither too rich, nor too poor. When they are going to plant them, they
cut them, as the common potatoes, taking care however that a bud or two
be left upon each piece which is intended to be planted. Their colour
is commonly red without, and yellow within. They are bigger than the
common sort, and have a sweet and very agreeable taste, which I cannot
find in the other potatoes, in artichokes or in any other root, and
they almost melt in the mouth. It is not long since they have been
planted here. They are dressed in the same manner as common potatoes,
and eaten either along with them, or by themselves. They grow very fast
and very well here; but the greatest difficulty consists in keeping
them over winter, for they will bear neither cold, nor a great heat,
nor wet. They must therefore be kept during winter in a box with sand
in a warm room. In Pensylvania where they have no valves in their
chimnies, they are put in such a box with sand, at some distance from
the fire, and there they are secured both against frost and against
over great heat. It will not answer the purpose to put them into dry
sand in a cellar, as is commonly done with the common sort of potatoes.
For the moisture which is always in cellars, penetrates the sand, and
makes them putrefy. It would probably be very easy to keep them in
Sweden in warm rooms, during the cold season. But the difficulty lies
wholly in bringing them over to Sweden. I carried a considerable number
of them with me on leaving America, and took all possible care in
preserving them. But we had a very violent storm at sea, by which the
ship was so greatly damaged, that the water got in every where, and
wetted our cloaths, beds and other moveables so much, that we could
wring the water out of them. It is therefore no wonder that my Bermuda
potatoes were rotten; but as they are now cultivated in Portugal and
Spain, nay even in England, it will be easy to bring them into Sweden.
The drink which the Spaniards prepare from these potatoes in their
American possessions is not usual in Pensylvania. [32]

Mr. Cock had a paper mill, on a little brook, and all the coarser sorts
of paper are manufactured in it. It is now annually rented for fifty
pounds Pensylvania currency.

October the 11th. I have already mentioned, that every countryman has a
greater or lesser number of apple trees planted round his farm-house,
from whence he gets great quantities of fruit, part of which he sells,
part he makes cyder of, and part he uses in his own family for pyes,
tarts, and the like. However he cannot expect an equal quantity of
fruit every year. And I was told, that this year had not by far
afforded such a great quantity of apples as the preceding; the cause of
which they told me, was the continual and great drought in the month of
May, which had hurt all the blossoms of the apple trees, and made them
wither. The heat had been so great as to dry up all the plants, and the
grass in the fields.

The Polytrichum commune, a species of moss, grew plentifully on wet and
low meadows between the woods, and in several places quite covered
them, as our mosses cover the meadows in Sweden. It was likewise very
plentiful on hills.

Agriculture was in a very bad state hereabouts. When a person had
bought a piece of land, which perhaps had never been ploughed since the
creation, he cut down part of the wood, tore up the roots, ploughed the
ground, sowed corn on it, and the first time got a plentiful crop. But
the same land being tilled for several years successively, without
being manured, it at last must of course lose its fertility. Its
possessor therefore leaves it fallow, and proceeds to another part of
his ground, which he treats in the same manner. Thus he goes on till he
has changed a great part of his possessions into corn-fields, and by
that means deprives the ground of its fertility. He then returns to the
first field, which now is pretty well recovered; this he again tills as
long as it will afford him a good crop, but when its fertility is
exhausted, he leaves it fallow again, and proceeds to the rest as
before.

It being customary here, to let the cattle go about the fields and in
the woods both day and night, the people cannot collect much dung for
manure. But by leaving the land fallow for several years together, a
great quantity of weeds spring up in it, and get such strength, that it
requires a considerable time to extirpate them. From hence it likewise
comes, that the corn is always so much mixed with weeds. The great
richness of the soil, which the first European colonists found here,
and which had never been ploughed before, has given rise to this
neglect of agriculture, which is still observed by many of the
inhabitants. But they do not consider, that when the earth is quite
exhausted, a great space of time, and an infinite deal of labour is
necessary to bring it again into good order; especially in these
countries which are almost every summer so scorched up by the excessive
heat and drought. The soil of the corn-fields consisted of a thin
mould, greatly mixed with a brick coloured clay, and a quantity of
small particles of glimmer. This latter came from the stones which are
here almost every where to be met with at the depth of a foot or
thereabouts. These little pieces of glimmer made the ground sparkle,
when the sun shone upon it.

Almost all the houses hereabouts were built either of stone or bricks;
but those of stone were more numerous. Germantown, which is about two
English miles long, had no other houses, and the country houses
thereabouts, were all built of stone. But there are several varieties
of that stone which is commonly made use of in building. Sometimes it
consisted of a black or grey glimmer, running in undulated veins, the
spaces between their bendings being filled up with a grey, loose,
small-grained limestone, which was easily friable. Some transparent
particles of quartz were scattered in the mass, of which the glimmer
made the greatest part. It was very easy to be cut, and with proper
tools could readily be shaped into any form. Sometimes however the
pieces consisted of a black, small-grained glimmer, a white
small-grained sandstone, and some particles of quartz, and the several
constituent parts were well mixed together. Sometimes the stone had
broad stripes of the white limestone without any addition of glimmer.
But most commonly they were much blended together, and of a grey
colour. Sometimes this stone was found to consist of quite fine and
black pieces of glimmer, and a grey, loose and very small-grained
limestone. This was likewise very easy to be cut, being loose.

These varieties of the stone are commonly found close together. They
were every where to be met with, at a little depth, but not in equal
quantity and goodness; and not always easy to be broken. When therefore
a person intended to build a house, he enquired where the best stone
could be met with. It is to be found on corn-fields and meadows, at a
depth which varies from two to six feet. The pieces were different as
to size. Some were eight or ten feet long, two broad, and one thick.
Sometimes they were still bigger, but frequently much less. Hereabouts
they lay in strata one above another, the thickness of each stratum
being about a foot. The length and breadth were different, but commonly
such as I have before mentioned. They must commonly dig three or four
feet before they reach the first stratum. The loose ground above that
stratum, is full of little pieces of this stone. This ground is the
common brick coloured soil, which is universal here, and consists of
sand and clay, though the former is more plentiful. The loose pieces of
glimmer which shine so much in it, seem to have been broken off from
the great strata of stone.

It must be observed that when the people build with this stone, they
take care to turn the flat side of it outwards. But as that cannot
always be done, the stone being frequently rough on all sides, it is
easily cut smooth with tools, since it is soft, and not very difficult
to be broken. The stones however are unequal in thickness, and
therefore by putting them together they cannot be kept in such straight
lines as bricks. It sometimes likewise happens that pieces break off
when they are cut, and leave holes on the outside of the wall. But in
order to fill up these holes, the little pieces of stone which cannot
be made use of are pounded, mixed with mortar, and put into the holes;
the places thus filled up, are afterwards smoothed, and when they are
dry, they are hardly distinguishable from the rest at some distance. At
last they draw on the outside of the wall, strokes of mortar, which
cross each other perpendicularly, so that it looks as if the wall
consisted wholly of equal, square stones, and as if the white strokes
were the places where they were joined with mortar. The inside of the
wall is made smooth, covered with mortar and whitewashed. It has not
been observed that this kind of stone attracts the moisture in a rainy
or wet season. In Philadelphia and its environs, you find several
houses built of this kind of stone.

The houses here are commonly built in the English manner.

One of Mr. Cock’s negroes showed me the skin of a badger (Ursus Meles)
which he had killed a few days ago, and which convinced me that the
American badger is the same with the Swedish one. It was here called
Ground Hog.

Towards night I returned to Philadelphia.

October the 12th. In the morning we went to the river Skulkill, partly
to gather seeds, partly to collect plants for the herbal, and to make
all sorts of observations. The Skulkill is a narrow river, which falls
into the Delaware, about four miles from Philadelphia to the south; but
narrow as it is, it rises on the west side of those high mountains,
commonly called the blue mountains, and runs two hundred English miles,
and perhaps more. It is a great disadvantage to this country, that
there are several cataracts in this river as low as Philadelphia, for
which reason there can be no navigation on it. To day I made some
descriptions and remarks on such plants as the cattle liked, or such as
they never touched.

I observed several little subterraneous walks in the fields, running
under ground in various directions, the opening of which was big enough
for a mole: the earth, which formed as it were a vault above it, and
lay elevated like a little bank, was near two inches high, full as
broad as a man’s hand, and about two inches thick. In uncultivated
fields I frequently saw these subterraneous walks, which discovered
themselves by the ground thrown up above them, which when trod upon
gave way, and made it inconvenient to walk in the field.

These walks are inhabited by a kind of mole, [33] which I intend to
describe more accurately in another work. Their food is commonly roots:
I have observed the following qualities in one which was caught. It had
greater stiffness and strength in its legs, than I ever observed in
other animals in proportion to their size. Whenever it intended to dig,
it held its legs obliquely, like oars, I laid my handkerchief before
it, and it began to stir in it with the snout, and taking away the
handkerchief to see what it had done to it, I found that in the space
of a minute it had made it full of holes, and it looked as if it had
been pierced very much by an awl. I was obliged to put some books on
the cover of the box in which I kept this animal, or else it was flung
off immediately. It was very irascible, and would bite great holes into
any thing that was put in its way; I held a steel pen-case to it, it at
first bit at it with great violence, but having felt its hardness, it
would not venture again to bite at any thing. These moles do not make
such hills as the European ones, but only such walks as I have already
described.

October the 13th. There is a plant here, from the berries of which they
make a kind of wax or tallow, and for that reason the Swedes call it
the Tallow shrub. The English call the same tree the Candleberry-tree,
or Bayberry-bush; and Dr. Linnæus gives it the name of Myrica cerifera.
It grows abundantly on a wet soil, and it seems to thrive particularly
well in the neighbourhood of the sea, nor have I ever found it high up
in the country far from the sea. The berries grow abundantly on the
female shrub, and look as if flower had been strewed upon them. They
are gathered late in autumn, being ripe about that time, and are then
thrown into a kettle or pot full of boiling water; by this means their
fat melts out, floats at the top of the water and may be skimmed off
into a vessel; with the skimming they go on till there is no tallow
left. The tallow as soon as it is congealed, looks like common tallow
or wax, but has a dirty green colour; it is for that reason melted over
again, and refined, by which means it acquires a fine and pretty
transparent green colour: this tallow is dearer than common tallow, but
cheaper than wax. In Philadelphia they pay a shilling Pensylvania
currency, for a pound of this tallow; but a pound of common tallow only
came to half that money, and wax costs as much again. From this tallow
they make candles in many parts of this province, but they usually mix
some common tallow with it. Candles of this kind, do not easily bend,
nor melt in summer as common candles do; they burn better and slower,
nor do they cause any smoak, but rather yield an agreeable smell, when
they are extinguished. An old Swede of ninety-one years of age told me,
that this sort of candles had formerly been much in use with his
country men. At present they do not make so many candles of this kind,
if they can get the tallow of animals; it being too troublesome to
gather the berries. However these candles are made use of by poor
people, who live in the neighbourhood of a place where the bushes grow,
and have not cattle enough to kill, in order to supply them with a
sufficient quantity of tallow. From the wax of the candleberry tree
they likewise make a soap here, which has an agreeable scent, and is
the best for shaving. This wax is likewise used by doctors, and
surgeons, who reckon it exceeding good for plasters upon wounds. A
merchant of this town once sent a quantity of these candles to those
American provinces which had Roman Catholic inhabitants, thinking he
would be well paid, since wax candles are made use of in the Roman
Catholick churches; but the clergy would not take them. An old Swede
mentioned that the root of the candleberry tree was formerly made use
of by the Indians, as a remedy against the tooth ach, and that he
himself having had the tooth ach very violently, had cut the root in
pieces and applied it round his tooth; and that the pain had been
lessened by it. Another Swede assured me that he had been cured of the
tooth ach, by applying the peel of the root to it. In Carolina, they
not only make candles out of the wax of the berries, but likewise
sealing-wax.

October the 14th. Penny Royal is a plant which has a peculiar strong
scent, and grows abundantly on dry places in the country. Botanists
call it Cunila pulegioides. It is reckoned very wholesome to drink as a
tea when a person has got cold, as it promotes perspiration. I was
likewise told, that on feeling a pain in any limb, this plant, if
applied to it, would give immediate relief.

The goods which are shipped to London from New England are the
following: all sorts of fish caught near Newfoundland and elsewhere;
train-oil of several sorts; whale-bone; tar, pitch, masts; new ships,
of which a great number is annually built; a few hides, and sometimes
some sorts of wood. The English islands in America, as Jamaica and
Barbadoes, get from New England, fish, flesh, butter, cheese, tallow,
horses, cattle; all sorts of lumber, such as pails, buckets, and
hogsheads; and have returns made in rum, sugar, melasses, and other
produces of the country, or in cash, the greatest part of all which
they send to London (the money especially) in payment of the goods
received from thence, and yet all this is inefficient to pay off the
debt.

October the 15th. The Alders grew here in considerable abundance on wet
and low places, and even sometimes on pretty high ones, but never
reached the height of the European alders, and commonly stood like a
bush about a fathom or two high. Mr. Bartram, and other gentlemen who
had frequently travelled in these provinces, told me that the more you
go to the south, the less are the alders, but that they are higher and
taller, the more you advance to the north. I found afterwards myself,
that the alders in some places of Canada, are little inferior to the
Swedish ones. Their bark is employed here in dying red and brown. A
Swedish inhabitant of America, told me that he had cut his leg to the
very bone, and that some coagulated blood had already been settled
within. That he had been advised to boil the alder bark, and to wash
the wound often with the water: that he followed this advice, and had
soon got his leg healed, though it had been very dangerous at first.

The Phytolacca decandra was called Poke by the English. The Swedes had
no particular name for it, but made use of the English, with some
little variation into Paok. When the juice of its berries is put upon
paper or the like, it strikes it with a high purple colour, which is as
fine as any in the world, and it is pity that no method is as yet found
out, of making this colour last on woollen and linen cloth, for it
fades very soon. Mr. Bartram mentioned, that having hit his foot
against a stone, he had got a violent pain in it; he then bethought
himself to put a leaf of the Phytolacca on his foot, by which he lost
the pain in a short time, and got his foot well soon after. The berries
are eaten by the birds about this time. The English and several Swedes
make use of the leaves in spring, when they are just come out, and are
yet tender and soft, and eat them partly as green cale, and partly in
the manner we eat spinnage. Sometimes they likewise prepare them in the
first of these ways, when the stalks are already grown a little longer,
breaking off none but the upper sprouts which are yet tender, and not
woody; but in this latter case, great care is to be taken, for if you
eat the plant when it is already grown up, and its leaves are no longer
soft, you may expect death as a consequence which seldom fails to
follow, for the plant has then got a power of purging the body to
excess. I have known people, who, by eating great full grown leaves of
this plant, have got such a strong dysentery, that they were near dying
with it: its berries however are eaten in autumn by children, without
any ill consequence.

Woollen and linen cloth is dyed yellow with the bark of hiccory. This
likewise is done with the bark of the black oak, or Linnæus’s Quercus
nigra, and that variety of it which Catesby in his Natural History of
Carolina, vol. i. tab. 19. calls Quercus marilandica. The flowers and
leaves of the Impatiens Noli tangere or balsamine, likewise dyed all
woollen stuffs with a fine yellow colour.

The Collinsonia canadensis was frequently found in little woods and
bushes, in a good rich soil. Mr. Bartram who knew the country perfectly
well, was sure that Pensylvania, and all the parts of America in the
same climate, were the true and original places where this plant grows.
For further to the south, neither he nor Messrs. Clayton and Mitchel
ever found it, though the latter gentlemen have made accurate
observations in Virginia and part of Maryland. And from his own
experience he knew, that it did not grow in the northerly parts. I have
never found it more than fifteen min. north of forty-three deg. The
time of the year when it comes up in Pensylvania, is so late, that its
seed has but just time sufficient to ripen in, and it therefore seems
unlikely, that it can succeed further north, Mr. Bartram was the first
who discovered it, and sent it over into Europe. Mr. Jussieu during his
stay at London, and Dr. Linnæus afterwards, called it Collinsonia, from
the celebrated Mr. Peter Collinson, a merchant in London, and fellow of
the English and Swedish Royal Societies. He well deserved the honour of
having a plant called after his name, for there are few people that
have promoted natural history and all useful sciences with a zeal like
his; or that have done as much as he towards collecting, cultivating,
and making known all sorts of plants. The Collinsonia has a peculiar
scent, which is agreeable, but very strong. It always gave me a pretty
violent head-ach whenever I passed by a place where it stood in plenty,
and especially when it was in flower. Mr. Bartram was acquainted with a
better quality of this plant, which was that of being an excellent
remedy against all sorts of pain in the limbs, and against a cold, when
the parts affected are rubbed with it. And Mr. Conrad Weisser,
interpreter of the language of the Indians in Pensylvania, had told him
of a more wonderful cure with this plant. He was once among a company
of Indians, one of which had been stung by a rattle snake, the savages
gave him over, but he boiled the collinsonia, and made the poor wretch
drink the water, from which he happily recovered. Somewhat more to the
north and in New York they call this plant Horseweed, because the
horses eat it in spring, before any other plant comes up.

October the 16th. I asked Mr. Franklin and other gentlemen who were
well acquainted with this country, whether they had met with any signs,
from whence they could have concluded that any place which was now a
part of the continent, had formerly been covered with water? and I got
the following account in answer.

1. On travelling from hence to the south, you meet with a place where
the highroad is very low in the ground between two mountains. On both
sides you see nothing but oyster shells and muscle shells in immense
quantities above each other; however the place is many miles off the
sea.

2. Whenever they dig wells, or build houses in town, they find the
earth lying in several strata above each other. At a depth of fourteen
feet or more, they find globular stones, which are as smooth on the
outside as those which lie on the sea-shore, and are made round and
smooth by the rolling of the waves. And after having dug through the
sand, and reached a depth of eighteen feet or more, they discover in
some places a slime like that which the sea throws up on the shore, and
which commonly lies at its bottom and in rivers; this slime is quite
full of trees, leaves, branches, reed, charcoal, &amp;c.

3. It has sometimes happened that new houses have sunk on one side in a
short time, and have obliged the people to pull them down again. On
digging deeper, for a very hard ground to build upon, they have found a
quantity of the above slime, wood, roots, &amp;c.

Are not these reasons sufficient to make one suppose that those places
in Philadelphia which are at present fourteen feet and more under
ground, formerly were the bottom of the sea, and that by several
accidents, sand, earth, and other things were carried upon it? or, that
the Delaware formerly was broader than it is at present? or, that it
has changed its course? This last still often happens at present; the
river breaking off the bank on one side, and forming one on the other.
Both the Swedes and English often shewed me such places.

October the 18th. At present I did not find above ten different kinds
of plants in blossom: they were, a Gentiana, two species of Aster, the
common Golden Rod, or Solidago Virga aurea, a species of Hieracium, the
yellow wood Sorrel, or Oxalis corniculata, the Fox Gloves, or Digitalis
purpurea, the Hamamelis Virginiana, or Witch Hazel, our common
Millefoil, or Achillæa Millefolium, and our Dandelion, or Leontodon
Taraxacum. All other plants had for this year laid aside their gay
colours. Several trees, especially those which were to flower early in
spring, had already formed such large buds, that on opening them all
the parts of fructification, such as Calyx, Corolla, Stamina and
Pistillum were plainly distinguishable. It was therefore easy to
determine the genus to which such trees belonged. Such were the red
maple, or Acer rubrum, and the Laurus æstivalis, a species of bay. Thus
nature prepared to bring forth flowers, with the first mild weather in
the next year. The buds were at present quite hard, and all their parts
pressed close together, that the cold might by all means be excluded.

The black Walnut trees had for the greatest part dropt their leaves,
and many of them were entirely without them. The walnuts themselves
were already fallen off. The green peel which enclosed them, if
frequently handled, would yield a black colour, which could not be got
off the fingers in two or three weeks time, though the hands were
washed ever so much.

The Cornus florida was called Dogwood by the English, and grew
abundantly in the woods. It looks beautiful when it is adorned with its
numerous great white flowers in spring. The wood is very hard, and is
therefore made use of for weaver’s spools, joiner’s planes, wedges, &amp;c.
When the cattle fall down in spring for want of strength, the people
tie a branch of this tree on their neck, thinking it will help them.

October the 19th. The Tulip tree grows every where in the woods of this
country. The botanists call it Liriodendron tulipifera, because its
flowers both in respect to their size, and in respect to their exterior
form, and even in some measure with regard to their colour, resemble
tulips. The Swedes called it Canoe tree, for both the Indians and the
Europeans often make their canoes of the stem of this tree. The
Englishmen in Pensylvania give it the name of Poplar. It is reckoned a
tree which grows to the greatest height and thickness of any in North
America, and which vies in that point with our greatest European trees.
The white oak and the fir in North America, however are little inferior
to it. It cannot therefore but be very agreeable to see in spring, at
the end of May (when it is in blossom) one of the greatest trees
covered for a fortnight together with flowers, which with regard to
their shape, size, and partly colour are like tulips, the leaves have
likewise something peculiar, the English therefore in some places call
the tree the old woman’s smock, because their imagination finds
something like it below the leaves.

Its wood is here made use of for canoes, boards, planks, bowls, dishes,
spoons, door posts, and all sorts of joiners work. I have seen a barn
of a considerable size whose walls, and roof were made of a single tree
of this kind, split into boards. Some joiners reckoned this wood better
than oak, because this latter frequently is warped, which the other
never does, but works very easy; others again valued it very little. It
is certain, that it contracts so much in hot weather, as to occasion
great cracks in the boards, and in wet weather it swells so as to be
near bursting, and the people hardly know of a wood in these parts
which varies so much in contracting and expanding itself. The joiners
however make much use of it in their work, they say there are two
species of it; but they are merely two varieties, one of which in time
turns yellow within, the other is white, the former is said to have a
looser texture. The bark (like Russia glass) is divisible into very
thin leaves, which are very tough like bast, though I have never seen
it employed as such. The leaves when crushed and applied to the
forehead are said to be a remedy against the head ach. When horses are
plagued with worms, the bark is pounded, and given them quite dry. Many
people believe its roots to be as efficacious against the fever as the
jesuits bark. The trees grow in all sorts of dry soil, both on high and
low grounds, but too wet a soil will not agree with them.

October the 20th. The Beaver tree is to be met with in several parts of
Pensylvania and New Jersey, in a poor swampy soil, or on wet meadows.
Dr. Linnæus calls it Magnolia glauca; both the Swedes and English call
it Beaver tree, because the root of this tree is the dainty of beavers,
which are caught by its means, however the Swedes sometimes gave it a
different name, and the English as improperly called it Swamp
Sassafras, and White Laurel. The trees of this kind dropt their leaves
early in autumn, though some of the young trees kept them all the
winter. I have seldom found the beaver tree to the north of
Pensylvania, where it begins to flower about the end of May. The scent
of its blossoms is excellent, for by it you can discover within three
quarters of an English mile, whether these little trees stand in the
neighbourhood, provided the wind be not against it. For the whole air
is filled with this sweet and pleasant scent. It is beyond description
agreeable to travel in the woods about that time, especially towards
night. They retain their flowers for three weeks and even longer,
according to the quality of the soil on which the trees stand; and
during the whole time of their being in blossom, they spread their
odoriferous exhalations. The berries likewise look very fine when they
are ripe, for they have a rich red colour, and hang in bunches on
slender stalks. The cough, and other pectoral diseases are cured by
putting the berries into rum or brandy, of which a draught every
morning may be taken; the virtues of this remedy were universally
extolled, and even praised for their salutary effects in consumptions.
The bark being put into brandy, or boiled in any other liquor, is said
not only to ease pectoral diseases, but likewise to be of some service
against all internal pains and heat; and it was thought that a
decoction of it could stop the dysentery. Persons who had caught cold,
boiled the branches of the beaver tree in water, and drank it to their
great relief. A Swede, called Lars Lack, gave the following account of
a cure effected by this tree: One of his relations, an old man, had an
open sore in his leg, which would not heal up again, though he had had
much advice and used many remedies. An Indian at last effected the cure
in the following manner. He burnt some of this wood to charcoal, which
he reduced to powder, mixed with the fresh fat of pork, and rubbed the
open places several times. This dried up the holes, which before were
continually open, and the legs of the old man were quite sound to his
death. The wood is likewise made use of for joiner’s planes.

October the 22d. Upon trial it has been found that the following
animals and birds, which are wild in the woods of North America, can be
made nearly as tractable as domestic animals.

The wild Cows and Oxen, of which several people of distinction have got
young calves from these wild cows, which are to be met with in
Carolina, and other provinces to the south of Pensylvania, and brought
them up among the tame cattle; when grown up, they were perfectly tame,
but at the same time very unruly, so that there was no enclosure strong
enough to resist them, if they had a mind to break through it; for as
they possess a great strength in their neck, it was easy for them to
overthrow the pales with their horns, and to get into the corn-fields;
and as soon as they had made a road, all the tame cattle followed them;
they likewise copulated with the latter, and by that means generated as
it were a new breed. This American species of oxen is Linnæus’s Bos
Bison, β.

American Deer, can likewise be tamed; and I have seen them tame myself
in different places. A farmer in New Jersey had one in his possession,
which he had caught when it was very young; and at present it was so
tame, that in the day time it run into the wood for its food, and
towards night it returned home, and frequently brought a wild deer out
of the wood, giving its master an opportunity to shoot it. Several
people have therefore tamed young deer, and make use of them for
hunting wild deer, or for decoying them home, especially in the time of
their rutting.

Beavers have been so tamed that they have gone on fishing, and brought
home what they had caught to their masters. This often is the case with
Otters, of which I have seen some, which were as tame as dogs, and
followed their masters wherever they went; if he went out in a boat,
the otter went with him, jumped into the water, and after a while came
up with a fish. The Opossum, can likewise be tamed, so as to follow
people like a dog.

The Raccoon which we (Swedes) call Siupp, can in time be made so tame
as to run about the streets like a domestic animal; but it is
impossible to make it leave off its habit of stealing. In the dark it
creeps to the poultry, and kills in one night a whole flock. Sugar and
other sweet things must be carefully hidden from it, for if the chests
and boxes are not always locked up, it gets into them, eats the sugar,
and licks up the treacle with its paws: the ladies therefore have every
day some complaint against it, and for this reason many people rather
forbear the diversion which this ape-like animal affords.

The grey and flying Squirrels are so tamed by the boys, that they sit
on their shoulders, and follow them every where.

The Turkey Cocks and Hens run about in the woods of this country, and
differ in nothing from our tame ones, except in their superior size,
and redder, though more palatable flesh. When their eggs are found in
the wood, and put under tame Turkey hens, the young ones become tame;
however when they grow up, it sometimes happens that they fly away;
their wings are therefore commonly clipped, especially when young. But
the tamed turkeys are commonly much more irascible, than those which
are naturally tame. The Indians likewise employ themselves in taming
them and keeping them near their huts.

Wild Geese have likewise been tamed in the following manner. When the
wild geese first come hither in spring, and stop a little while (for
they do not breed in Pensylvania) the people try to shoot them in the
wing, which however is generally mere chance. They then row to the
place where the wild goose fell, catch it, and keep it for some time at
home, by this means many of them have been made so tame, that when they
were let out in the morning, they returned in the evening, but to be
more sure of them, their wings are commonly clipped. I have seen wild
geese of this kind, which the owner assured me, that he had kept for
more than twelve years; but though he kept eight of them, yet he never
had the pleasure to see them copulate with the tame ones, or lay eggs.

Partridges, which are here in abundance, may likewise be so far tamed,
as to run about all day with the poultry, and to come along with them
to be fed when they are called. In the same manner I have seen wild
Pigeons, which were made so tame as to fly out and return again. In
some winters there are immense quantities of wild pigeons in
Pensylvania.

October the 24th. Of all the rare birds of North America, the Humming
bird is the most admirable, or at least most worthy of peculiar
attention. Several reasons induce me to believe that few parts of the
world can produce its equal. Dr. Linnæus calls it Trochilus Colubris.
The Swedes and some Englishmen call it the King’s bird, but the name of
Humming bird is more common. Catesby in his Natural History of
Carolina, Vol. i. page 65, tab. 65. has drawn it, in its natural size,
with its proper colours, and added a description of it. [34] In size it
is not much bigger than a large humble bee, and is therefore the least
of all birds, [35] or it is much if there is a lesser species in the
world. Its plumage is most beautifully coloured, most of its feathers
being green, some grey, and others forming a shining red ring round its
neck; the tail glows with fine feathers, changing from green into a
brass colour. These birds come here in spring about the time when it
begins to grow very warm, and make their nests in summer, but towards
autumn they retreat again into the more southern countries of America.
They subsist barely upon the nectar, or sweet juice of flowers
contained in that part, which botanists call the nectarium, and which
they suck up with their long bills. Of all the flowers, they like those
most, which have a long tube, and I have observed that they have
fluttered chiefly about the Impatiens Noli tangere, and the Monarda
with crimson flowers. An inhabitant of the country is sure to have a
number of these beautiful and agreeable little birds before his window
all the summer long, if he takes care to plant a bed with all sorts of
fine flowers under them. It is indeed a diverting spectacle to see
these little active creatures flying about the flowers like bees, and
sucking their juices with their long and narrow bills. The flowers of
the above-mentioned Monarda grow verticillated, that is, at different
distances they surround the stalk, as the flowers of our mint (Mentha)
bastard hemp (Galeopsis) mother-wort (Leonurus) and dead nettle
(Lamium). It is therefore diverting to see them putting their bills
into every flower in the circle. As soon as they have sucked the juice
of one flower, they flutter to the next. One that has not seen them
would hardly believe in how short a space of time they have had their
tongues in all the flowers of a plant, which when large and with a long
tube, the little bird by putting its head into them, looks as if it
crept with half its body into them.

During their sucking the juice out of the flowers they never settle on
it, but flutter continually like bees, bend their feet backwards, and
move their wings so quick, that they are hardly visible. During this
fluttering they make a humming like bees, or like that which is
occasioned by the turning of a little wheel. After they have thus,
without resting, fluttered for a while, they fly to a neighbouring tree
or post, and resume their vigour again. They then return to their
humming and sucking. They are not very shy, and I in company with
several other people, have not been full two yards from the place where
they fluttered about and sucked the flowers; and though we spoke and
moved, yet they were no ways disturbed; but on going towards them, they
would fly off with the swiftness of an arrow. When several of them were
on the same bed, there was always a violent combat between them, in
meeting each other at the same flower (for envy was likewise
predominant amongst these little creatures) and they attacked with such
impetuosity, that it would seem as if the strongest would pierce its
antagonist through and through, with its long bill. During the fight,
they seem to stand in the air, keeping themselves up, by the incredibly
swift motion of their wings. When the windows towards the garden are
open, they pursue each other into the rooms, fight a little, and
flutter away again. Sometimes they come to a flower which is withering,
and has no more juice in it; they then in a fit of anger pluck it off,
and throw it on the ground, that it may not mislead them for the
future. If a garden contains a great number of these little birds, they
are seen to pluck off the flowers in such quantities, that the ground
is quite covered with them, and it seems as if this proceeded from a
motion of envy.

Commonly you hear no other sound than their humming, but when they fly
against each other in the air, they make a chirping noise like a
sparrow or chicken. I have sometimes walked with several other people
in small gardens, and these birds have on all sides fluttered about us,
without appearing very shy. They are so small that one would easily
mistake them for great humming-bees or butterflies, and their flight
resembles that of the former, and is incredibly swift. They have never
been observed to feed on insects or fruit; the nectar of flowers, seems
therefore to be their only food. Several people have caught some
humming birds on account of their singular beauty, and have put them
into cages, where they died for want of a proper food. However Mr.
Bartram has kept a couple of them for several weeks together, by
feeding them with water in which sugar had been dissolved, and I am of
opinion that it would not be difficult to keep them all winter in a
hot-house.

The humming bird always builds its nest in the middle of a branch of a
tree, and it is so small, that it cannot be seen from the ground, but
he who intends to see it must get up to the branch. For this reason it
is looked upon as a great rarity if a nest is accidentally found,
especially as the trees in summer have so thick a foliage. The nest is
likewise the least of all; that which is in my possession is quite
round, and consists in the inside of a brownish and quite soft down,
which seems to have been collected from the leaves of the great mullein
or Verbascum Thapsus, which are often found covered with a soft wool of
this colour, and the plant is plentiful here. The outside of the nest
has a coating of green moss, such as is common on old pales or
enclosures and on trees; the inner diameter of the nest is hardly a
geometrical inch at the top, and its depth half an inch. It is however
known that the humming birds make their nests likewise of flax, hemp,
moss, hair and other such soft materials; they are said to lay two
eggs, each of the size of a pea.

October the 25th. I employed this day and the next in packing up all
the seeds gathered this autumn, for I had an opportunity of sending
them to England by the ships which sailed about this time. From England
they were forwarded to Sweden.

October the 27th. In the morning I set out on a little journey to New
York, in company with Mr. Peter Cock, with a view to see the country,
and to enquire into the safest road, which I could take in going to
Canada, through the desart or uninhabited country between it and the
English provinces.

That part where we travelled at present was pretty well inhabited on
both sides of the road, by Englishmen, Germans and other Europeans.
Plains and hills of different dimensions were seen alternately,
mountains and stones, I never saw, excepting a few pebbles. Near almost
every farm was a great orchard with peach and apple trees, some of
which were yet loaded with fruit.

The enclosures were in some parts low enough, for the cattle to leap
over them with ease; to prevent this the hogs had a triangular wooden
yoke: this custom was as I have already observed, common over all the
English plantations. To the horses neck was fastened a piece of wood,
which at the lower end had a tooth or hook, fastening in the enclosure,
and stopping the horse, just when it lifted its fore feet to leap over;
but I know not whether this be a good invention with regard to horses.
They were likewise kept in bounds by a piece of wood, one end of which
was fastened to one of the fore feet, and the other to one of the hind
feet, and it forced them to walk pretty slowly, as at the same time it
made it impossible for them to leap over the enclosures. To me it
appeared that the horses were subject to all sorts of dangerous
accidents from this piece of wood.

Near New Frankfurt we rode over a little stone bridge, and somewhat
further, eight or nine English miles from Philadelphia we passed over
another, which was likewise of stone. There are not yet any milestones
put up in the country, and the inhabitants only compute the distances
by guess. We were afterwards brought over a river in a ferry, where we
paid threepence a person, for ourselves and our horses.

At one of the places where we stopt to have our horses fed, the people
had a Mocking-bird in a cage; and it is here reckoned the best singing
bird, though its plumage be very simple, and not showy at all. At this
time of the year it does not sing. Linnæus calls it Turdus polyglottos,
and Catesby in his Natural History of Carolina, Vol. 1. p. 27. tab. 27,
has likewise described and drawn this bird. The people said that it
built its nests in the bushes and trees, but is so shy, that if any
body come and look at its eggs, it leaves the nest, never to come to it
again. Its young ones require great care in being bred up. If they are
taken from their mother and put into a cage, she feeds them for three
or four days; but seeing no hopes of setting them at liberty, she flies
away. It then often happens, that the young ones die soon after,
doubtless because they cannot accustom themselves to eat what the
people give them. But it is generally imagined, that the last time the
mother feeds them, she finds means to poison them, in order, the sooner
to deliver them from slavery and wretchedness. These birds stay all
summer in the colonies, but retire in autumn to the south, and stay
away all winter. They have got the name of Mocking-birds, on account of
their skill in imitating the note of almost every bird they hear. The
song peculiar to them is excellent, and varied by an infinite change of
notes and melody; several people are therefore of opinion, that they
are the best singing birds in the world. So much is certain, that few
birds come up to them; this is what makes them precious: the Swedes
call it by the same name as the English.

About noon we came to New Bristol, a small town in Pensylvania, on the
banks of the Delaware, about fifteen English miles from Philadelphia.
Most of the houses are built of stone, and stand asunder. The
inhabitants carry on a small trade, though most of them get their goods
from Philadelphia. On the other side of the river, almost directly
opposite to New Bristol, lies the town of Burlington, in which the
governor of New Jersey resides.

We had now country seats on both sides of the roads. Now we came into a
lane enclosed with pales on both sides, including pretty great
corn-fields. Next followed a wood, and we perceived for the space of
four English miles nothing but woods, and a very poor soil, on which
the Lupinus perennis grew plentifully and succeeded well. I was
overjoyed to see a plant come on so well in these poor dry places, and
even began to meditate, how to improve this discovery in a soil like
that which it inhabited. But I afterwards had the mortification to find
that the horses and cows eat almost all the other plants, but left the
lupine, which was however very green, looked very fresh, and was
extremely soft to the touch. Perhaps means may be found out of making
this plant palatable to the cattle. In the evening we arrived at
Trenton, after having previously passed the Delaware in a ferry.

October the 28th. Trenton is a long narrow town, situate at some
distance from the river Delaware, on a sandy plain; it belongs to New
Jersey, and they reckon it thirty miles from Philadelphia. It has two
small churches, one for the people belonging to the church of England,
the other for the presbyterians. The houses are partly built of stone,
though most of them are made of wood or planks, commonly two stories
high, together with a cellar below the building, and a kitchen under
ground, close to the cellar. The houses stand at a moderate distance
from one another. They are commonly built so, that the street passes
along one side of the houses, while gardens of different dimensions
bound the other side; in each garden is a draw-well; the place is
reckoned very healthy. Our landlord told us, that twenty-two years ago,
when he first settled here, there was hardly more than one house; but
from that time Trenton has encreased so much, that there are at present
near a hundred houses. The houses were within divided into several
rooms by their partitions of boards. The inhabitants of the place
carried on a small trade with the goods which they got from
Philadelphia, but their chief gain consisted in the arrival of the
numerous travellers between that city and New York; for they are
commonly brought by the Trenton Yachts from Philadelphia to Trenton, or
from thence to Philadelphia. But from Trenton further to New Brunswick,
the travellers go in the waggons which set out every day for that
place. Several of the inhabitants however likewise subsist on the
carriage for all sorts of goods, which are every day sent in great
quantities, either from Philadelphia to New York, or from thence to the
former place; for between Philadelphia and Trenton all goods go by
water, but between Trenton and New Brunswick they are all carried by
land, and both these conveniences belong to people of this town.

For the yachts which go between this place and the capital of
Pensylvania, they usually pay a shilling and six-pence of Pensylvania
currency per person, and every one pays besides for his baggage. Every
passenger must provide meat and drink for himself, or pay some settled
fare: between Trenton and New Brunswick a person pays two shillings and
sixpence, and the baggage is likewise paid for separately.

We continued our journey in the morning; the country through which we
passed was for the greatest part level, though sometimes there were
some long hills, some parts were covered with trees, but far the
greater part of the country was without woods; on the other hand I
never saw any place in America, the towns excepted, so well peopled. An
old man, who lived in this neighbourhood and accompanied us for some
part of the road, however assured me, that he could well remember the
time, when between Trenton and New Brunswick there were not above three
farms, and he reckoned it was about fifty and some odd years ago.
During the greater part of the day we had very extensive corn-fields on
both sides of the road, and commonly towards the south the country had
a great declivity. Near almost every farm was a spacious orchard full
of peaches and apple trees, and in some of them the fruit was fallen
from the trees in such quantities, as to cover nearly the whole
surface. Part of it they left to rot, since they could not take it all
in and consume it. Wherever we passed by we were always welcome to go
into the fine orchards, and gather our hats and pockets full of the
choicest fruit, without the possessor’s so much as looking after it.
Cherry trees were planted near the farms, on the roads, &amp;c.

The barns [36] had a peculiar kind of construction hereabouts, which I
will give a concise description of. The whole building was very great,
so as almost to equal a small church; the roof was pretty high, covered
with wooden shingles, declining on both sides, but not steep: the walls
which support it, were not much higher than a full grown man; but on
the other hand the breadth of the building was the more considerable:
in the middle was the threshing floor, and above it, or in the loft or
garret they put the corn which was not yet threshed, the straw, or any
thing else, according to the season: on one side were stables for the
horses, and on the other for the cows. And the small cattle had
likewise their particular stables or styes; on both ends of the
buildings were great gates, so that one could come in with a cart and
horses through one of them, and go out at the other: here was therefore
under one roof the threshing floor, the barn, the stables, the hay
loft, the coach house, &amp;c. This kind of buildings is chiefly made use
of by the Dutch and Germans; for it is to be observed that the country
between Trenton and New York, is inhabited by few Englishmen, but
instead of them by Germans or Dutch, [37] the latter of which
especially are numerous.

Before I proceed, I find it necessary to remark one thing with regard
to the Indians, or old Americans. For this account may perhaps meet
with readers, who, like many people of my acquaintance, may be of
opinion that all North America, was almost wholly inhabited by savage
or heathen nations, and they may be astonished, that I do not mention
them more frequently in my account. Others may perhaps imagine, that
when I mention in my journal, that the country is much cultivated, that
in several places, houses of stone or wood are built, round which are
corn-fields, gardens, and orchards, that I am speaking of the property
of the Indians; to undeceive them, I here give the following
explication. The country especially all along the coasts, in the
English colonies, is inhabited by Europeans, who in some places are
already so numerous, that few parts of Europe are more populous. The
Indians have sold the country to the Europeans, and have retired
further up: in most parts you may travel twenty Swedish miles, or about
a hundred and twenty English miles, from the sea shore, before you
reach the first habitations of the Indians. And it is very possible for
a person to have been at Philadelphia and other towns on the sea shore
for half a year together, without so much as seeing an Indian. I intend
in the sequel to give a more circumstantial account of them, their
religion, manners, oeconomy, and other particulars relating to them: at
present I return to the sequel of my journal.

About nine English miles from Trenton, the ground began to change its
colour; hitherto it consisted of a considerable quantity of hazel
coloured clay, but at present the earth was a reddish brown, so that it
sometimes had a purple colour, and sometimes looked like logwood. This
colour came from a red limestone which approached very near to that
which is on the mountain Kinnekulle in West Gothland, and makes a
particular stratum in the rock. The American red limestone therefore
seems to be merely a variety of that I saw in Sweden, it lay in strata
of two or three fingers thickness; but was divisible into many thinner
plates or shivers, whose surface was seldom flat and smooth, but
commonly rough: the strata themselves were frequently cut off by
horizontal cracks. When these stones were exposed to the air, they by
degrees shivered and withered into pieces, and at last turned into
dust. The people of this neighbourhood did not know how to make any use
of it; the soil above is sometimes rich and sometimes poor: in such
places where the people had lately dug new wells, I perceived, that
most of the rubbish which was thrown up consisted of such a species of
stone. This reddish brown earth we always saw till near New Brunswick,
where it is particularly plentiful. The banks of the river, shewed in
many places nothing but strata of Limestone, which did not run
horizontally, but dipped very much.

About ten o’clock in the morning we came to Prince-town, which is
situated in a plain. Most of the houses are built of wood, and are not
contiguous, so that there are gardens and pastures between them. As
these parts were sooner inhabited by Europeans than Pensylvania, the
woods were likewise more cut away, and the country more cultivated, so
that one might have imagined himself to be in Europe.

We now thought of continuing our journey, but as it began to rain very
heavily, and continued so during the whole day and part of the night,
we were forced to stay till next morning,

October the 29th. This morning we proceeded on our journey. The country
was pretty well peopled; however there were yet great woods in many
places: they all consisted of deciduous trees: and I did not perceive a
single tree of the fir kind, till I came to New Brunswick. The ground
was level, and did not seem to be every where of the richest kind. In
some places it had hillocks, losing themselves almost imperceptibly in
the plains, which were commonly crossed by a rivulet. Almost near every
farm-house were great orchards. The houses were commonly built of
timber, and at some distance by themselves stood the ovens for baking,
consisting commonly of clay.

On a hill covered with trees, and called Rockhill, I saw several pieces
of stone or rock, so big, that they would have required three men to
roll them down. But besides these there were few great stories in the
country; for most of those which we saw, could easily be lifted up by a
single man. In another place we perceived a number of little round
pebbles, but we did not meet with either mountains or rocks.

About noon we arrived at New Brunswick, a pretty little town in the
province of New Jersey, in a valley on the west side of the river
Rareton; on account of its low situation, it cannot be seen (coming
from Pensylvania) before you get to the top of the hill, which is quite
close up to it: the town extends north and south along the river. The
German inhabitants have two churches, one of stone and the other of
wood; the English church is of the latter kind, but the presbyterians
were building one of stone: the town house makes likewise a pretty good
appearance. Some of the other houses are built of bricks, but most of
them are made either wholly of wood, or of bricks and wood; the wooden
houses are not made of strong timber, but merely of boards or planks,
which are within joined by laths: such houses as consist of both wood
and bricks, have only the wall towards the street of bricks, all the
other sides being merely of planks. This peculiar kind of ostentation
would easily lead a traveller, who passes through the town in haste, to
believe that most of the houses are built of bricks. The houses were
covered with shingles; before each door there was an elevation, to
which you ascend by some steps from the street; it resembled a small
balcony, and had some benches on both sides, on which the people sat in
the evening, in order to enjoy the fresh air, and to have the pleasure
of viewing those who passed by. The town has only one street
lengthways, and at its northern extremity there is a street across;
both of these are of a considerable length.

The river Rareton passes hard by the town, and is deep enough for great
yachts to come up; its breadth near the town is within the reach of a
common gun shot; the tide comes up several miles beyond the town, the
yachts were placed lengthways along the bridge; the river has very high
and pretty steep banks on both sides, but near the town there are no
such banks, it being situated in a low valley. One of the streets is
almost entirely inhabited by Dutchmen, who came hither from Albany, and
for that reason they call it Albany street: these Dutch people only
keep company among themselves, and seldom or never go amongst the other
inhabitants, living as it were quite separate from them. New Brunswick
belongs to New Jersey; however the greatest part, or rather all its
trade is to New York, which is about forty English miles distant; to
that place they send corn, flour in great quantities, bread, several
other necessaries, a great quantity of linseed, boards timber, wooden
vessels, and all sorts of carpenters work. Several small yachts are
every day going backwards and forwards between these two towns. The
inhabitants likewise get a considerable profit from the travellers, who
every hour pass through, on the high road.

The steep banks consist of the red limestone, which I have before
described. It is here plainly visible that the strata are not
horizontal, but considerably dipping, especially towards the south. The
weather and the air has in a great measure dissolved the stone here: I
enquired, whether it could not be made use of, but was assured, that in
building houses it was entirely useless; for, though it is hard and
permanent under ground, yet on being dug out, and exposed for some time
to the air, it first crumbles into greater, then into lesser pieces,
and at last is converted into dust. An inhabitant of this town, however
tried to build a house with this sort of stone, but its outsides being
exposed to the air, soon began to change so much, that the owner was
obliged to put boards all over the wall, to preserve it from falling to
pieces. The people however pretend that this stone is a very good
manure, if it is scattered upon the corn-fields in its rubbish state,
for it is said to stifle the weeds: it is therefore made use of both on
the fields and in gardens. [38]

Towards the evening we continued our journey, and were ferried over the
river Rareton, together with our horses. In a very dry summer, and when
the tide has ebbed, it is by no means dangerous to ride through this
river. On the opposite shore the red juniper tree was pretty abundant.
The country through which we now passed was pretty well inhabited, but
in most places full of small pebbles.

We saw Guinea Hens in many places where we passed by. They sometimes
run about the fields, at a good distance from the farm-houses.

About eight English miles from New Brunswick, the road divided. We took
that on the left, for that on the right leads to Amboy, the chief
sea-town in New Jersey. The country now made a charming appearance;
some parts being high, others forming vallies, and all of them well
cultivated. From the hills you had a prospect of houses, farms,
gardens, corn-fields, forests, lakes, islands, roads, and pastures.

In most of the places where we travelled this day the colour of the
ground was reddish. I make no doubt, but there were strata of the
before-mentioned red limestone under it. Sometimes the ground looked
very like a cinnabar ore.

Wood-bridge is a small village in a plain, consisting of a few houses:
we stopped here to rest our horses a little. The houses were most of
them built of boards; the walls had a covering of shingles on the
outside; these shingles were round at one end, and all of a length in
each row: some of the houses had an Italian roof, but the greatest part
had roofs with pediments; most of them were covered with shingles. In
most places we met with wells and buckets to draw up the water.

Elizabeth-town is a small town, about twenty English miles distant from
New Brunswick: we arrived there immediately after sun setting. Its
houses are mostly scattered, but well built, and generally of boards,
with a roof of shingles, and walls covered with the same. There were
likewise some stone buildings. A little rivulet passes through the town
from west to east; it is almost reduced to nothing when the water ebbs
away, but with the full tide they can bring up small yachts. Here were
two fine churches, each of which made a much better appearance than any
one in Philadelphia. That belonging to the people of the church of
England was built of bricks, had a steeple with bells, and a balustrade
round it, from which there was a prospect of the country. The meeting
house of the presbyterians was built of wood, but had both a steeple
and bells, and was, like the other houses covered with shingles. The
town house made likewise a good appearance, and had a spire with a
bell. The banks of the river were red, from the reddish limestone; both
in and about the town were many gardens and orchards, and it might
truly be said that Elizabeth-town was situated in a garden; the ground
hereabouts being even and well cultivated.

The geese, in some of the places by which we passed this day and the
next, carried three or four little sticks, of the length of a foot
about their necks; they were fastened crossways, to prevent them from
creeping through half broken enclosures. They look extremely awkward,
and it is very diverting to see them in this attire.

At night we took up our lodgings at Elizabeth-town Point, an inn about
two English miles distant from the town, and the last house on this
road belonging to New Jersey. The man who had taken the lease of it,
together with that of the ferry near it, told us that he paid a hundred
and ten pounds of Pensylvania currency to the owner.

October the 30th. We were ready to proceed on our journey at
sun-rising. Near the inn where we had passed the night, we were to
cross a river, and we were brought over, together with our horses, in a
wretched half rotten ferry. This river came a considerable way out of
the country, and small vessels could easily sail up it. This was a
great advantage to the inhabitants of the neighbouring country, giving
them an opportunity of sending their goods to New York with great ease;
and they even made use of it for trading to the West Indies. The
country was low on both sides of the river, and consisted of meadows.
But there was no other hay to be got, than such as commonly grows in
swampy grounds; for as the tide comes up in this river, these low
plains were sometimes overflowed when the water was high. The people
hereabouts are said to be troubled in summer with immense swarms of
gnats or musquetoes, which sting them and their cattle. This was
ascribed to the low swampy meadows, on which these insects deposite
their eggs, which are afterwards hatched by the heat.

As soon as we had got over the river, we were upon Staten Island, which
is quite surrounded with salt water. This is the beginning of the
province of New York. Most of the people settled here were Dutchmen, or
such as came hither whilst the Dutch were yet in possession of this
place. But at present they were scattered among the English and other
European inhabitants, and spoke English for the greatest part. The
prospect of the country here is extremely pleasing, as it is not so
much intercepted by woods, but offers more cultivated fields to view.
Hills and vallies still continued, as usual, to change alternately.

The farms were near each other. Most of the houses were wooden; however
some were built of stone. Near every farm-house was an orchard with
apple trees: the fruit was already for the greatest part gathered.
Here, and on the whole journey before, I observed a press for cyder at
every farm-house, made in different manners, by which the people had
already pressed the juice out of the apples, or were just busied with
that work. Some people made use of a wheel made of thick oak planks,
which turned upon a wooden axis by means of a horse drawing it, much in
the same manner as the people do with woad; [39] except that here the
wheel runs upon planks. Cherry trees stood along the enclosures round
corn-fields.

The corn-fields were excellently situated, and either sown with wheat
or rye. They had no ditches on their sides, but (as is usual in
England) only furrows, drawn at greater or lesser distances from each
other.

In one place we observed a water mill, so situated, that when the tide
flowed, the water ran into a pond: but when it ebbed, the floodgate was
drawn up, and the mill driven by the water, flowing out of the pond.

About eight o’clock in the morning we arrived at the place where we
were to cross the water, in order to come to the town of New York. We
left our horses here and went on board the yacht: we were to go eight
English miles by sea; however we landed about eleven o’clock in the
morning at New York. We saw a kind of wild ducks in immense quantities
upon the water: the people called them Blue bills, and they seemed to
be the same with our Pintail ducks, or Linnæus’s Anas acuta: but they
were very shy. On the shore of the continent we saw some very fine
sloping corn-fields, which at present looked quite green, the corn
being already come up. We saw many boats in which the fishermen were
busy catching oysters: to this purpose they make use of a kind of rakes
with long iron teeth bent inwards; these they used either singly or two
tied together in such a manner, that the teeth were turned towards each
other.

October the 31st. About New York they find innumerable quantities of
excellent oysters, and there are few places which have oysters of such
an exquisite taste, and of so great a size: they are pickled and sent
to the West Indies and other places; which is done in the following
manner. As soon as the oysters are caught, their shells are opened, and
the fish washed clean; some water is then poured into a pot, the
oysters are put into it, and they must boil for a while; the pot is
then taken off from the fire again, the oysters taken out and put upon
a dish, till they are somewhat dry: then you take some mace, allspice,
black pepper, and as much vinegar as you think is sufficient to give a
sourish taste. All this is mixed with half the liquor in which the
oysters were boiled, and put over the fire again. While you boil it
great care is to be taken in scumming off the thick scum; at last the
whole pickle is poured into a glass or earthen vessel, the oysters are
put to it, and the vessel is well stopped to keep out the air. In this
manner, oysters will keep for years together, and may be sent to the
most distant parts of the world.

The merchants here buy up great quantities of oysters about this time,
pickle them in the above-mentioned manner, and send them to the West
Indies: by which they frequently make a considerable profit: for, the
oysters, which cost them five shillings of their currency, they
commonly sell for a pistole, or about six times as much as they gave
for them; and sometimes they get even more: the oysters which are thus
pickled have a very fine flavour. The following is another way of
preserving oysters: they are taken out of the shells, fried with
butter, put into a glass or earthen vessel with the melted butter over
them, so that they are quite covered with it, and no air can get to
them. Oysters prepared in this manner have likewise an agreeable taste,
and are exported to the West Indies and other parts.

Oysters are here reckoned very wholesome, some people assured us, that
they had not felt the least inconvenience, after eating a considerable
quantity of them. It is likewise a common rule here that oysters are
best in those months which have an r in their name, such as September,
October, &amp;c but that they are not so good in other months; however
there are poor people, who live all the year long upon nothing but
oysters with bread.

The sea near New York, affords annually the greatest quantity of
oysters. They are found chiefly in a muddy ground, where they lie in
the slime, and are not so frequent in a sandy bottom: a rockey and a
stony bottom is seldom found here. The oyster shells are gathered in
great heaps, and burnt into a lime, which by some people is made use of
in building houses, but is not reckoned so good as that made of
limestone. On our journey to New York, we saw high heaps of oyster
shells near the farm-houses, upon the sea shore; and about New York, we
observed the people had carried them upon the fields which were sown
with wheat. However they were entire, and not crushed.

The Indians who inhabited the coast before the arrival of the
Europeans, have made oysters and other shell fish their chief food; and
at present whenever they come to a salt water where oysters are to be
got, they are very active in catching them, and sell them in great
quantities to other Indians who live higher up the country: for this
reason you see immense numbers of oyster and muscle shells piled up
near such places, where you are certain that the Indians formerly built
their huts. This circumstance ought to make us cautious in maintaining,
that in all places on the sea shore, or higher up in the country, where
such heaps of shells are to be met with, the latter have lain there
ever since the time that those places were overflowed by the sea.

Lobsters are likewise plentyfully caught hereabouts, pickled much in
the same way as oysters, and sent to several places. I was told of a
very remarkable circumstance about these lobsters, and I have
afterwards frequently heard it mentioned. The coast of New York had
already European inhabitants for a considerable time, yet no lobsters
were to be met with on that coast; and though the people fished ever so
often, they could never find any signs of lobsters being in this part
of the sea: they were therefore continually brought in great wellboats
from New England, where they are plentiful; but it happened that one of
these wellboats broke in pieces near Hellgate, about ten English miles
from New York, and all the lobsters in it got off. Since that time they
have so multiplied in this part of the sea, that they are now caught in
the greatest abundance.

November the 1st. A kind of cold fever, which the English in this
country call Fever and Ague, is very common in several parts of the
English colonies. There are however other parts, where the people have
never felt it. I will in the sequel describe the symptoms of this
disease at large. Several of the most considerable inhabitants of this
town, assured me that this disease was not near so common in New York,
as it is in Pensylvania, where ten were seized by it, to one in the
former province; therefore they were of opinion, that this disease was
occasioned by the vapours arising from stagnant fresh water, from
marshes, and from rivers; for which reason those provinces situated on
the sea shore, could not be so much affected by it. However the
carelesness with which people eat quantities of melons, watermelons,
peaches, and other juicy fruit in summer, was reckoned to contribute
much towards the progress of this fever; and repeated examples
confirmed the truth of this opinion. The jesuit’s bark was reckoned a
good remedy against it. It has however often been found to have
operated contrary to expectation, though I am ignorant whether it was
adulterated, or whether some mistake had been committed in the manner
of taking it. Mr. Davis van Horne, a merchant, told me that he cured
himself and several other people of this fever, by the leaves of the
common Garden Sage, or Salvia officinalis of Linnæus. The leaves are
crushed or pounded in a mortar, and the juice is pressed out of them;
this is continued till they get a spoonful of the liquid, which is
mixed with lemon juice. This draught is taken about the time that the
cold fit comes on; and after taking it three or four times, the fever
does not come again.

The bark of the white oak was reckoned the best remedy which had as yet
been found against the dysentery. It is reduced to a powder, and then
taken: some people assured me that in cases where nothing would help,
this remedy had given a certain and speedy relief. The people in this
place likewise make use of this bark (as is usually done in the English
colonies) to dye wool a brown colour, which looks like that of bohea
tea, and does not fade by being exposed to the sun. Among the numerous
shells which are found on the sea shore, there are some which by the
English here are called Clams, and which bear some resemblance to the
human ear. They have a considerable thickness, and are chiefly white,
excepting the pointed end, which both without and within has a blue
colour, between purple and violet. They are met with in vast numbers on
the sea shore of New York, Long Island, and other places. The shells
contain a large animal, which is eaten both by the Indians and
Europeans settled here.

A considerable commerce is carried on in this article, with such
Indians as live further up the country. When these people inhabited the
coast, they were able to catch their own clams, which at that time made
a great part of their food; but at present this is the business of the
Dutch and English, who live in Long Island and other maritime
provinces. As soon as the shells are caught, the fish is taken out of
them, drawn upon a wire, and hung up in the open air, in order to dry
by the heat of the sun. When this is done, the fish is put into proper
vessels, and carried to Albany upon the river Hudson; there the Indians
buy them, and reckon them one of their best dishes. Besides the
Europeans, many of the native Indians come annually down to the sea
shore, in order to catch clams, proceeding with them afterwards in the
manner I have just described.

The shells of these clams are used by the Indians as money, and make
what they call their wampum; they likewise serve their women for an
ornament, when they intend to appear in full dress. These wampums are
properly made of the purple parts of the shells, which the Indians
value more than the white parts. A traveller, who goes to trade with
the Indians, and is well stocked with them, may become a considerable
gainer; but if he take gold coin, or bullion, he will undoubtedly be a
loser; for the Indians who live farther up the country, put little or
no value upon these metals which we reckon so precious, as I have
frequently observed in the course of my travels. The Indians formerly
made their own wampums, though not without a deal of trouble: but at
present the Europeans employ themselves that way; especially the
inhabitants of Albany, who get a considerable profit by it. In the
sequel I intend to relate the manner of making the wampum.

November the 2d. Besides the different sects of christians, there are
many Jews settled in New York, who possess great privileges. They have
a synagogue and houses, and great country seats of their own property,
and are allowed to keep shops in town. They have likewise several
ships, which they freight and send out with their own goods. In fine
they enjoy all the privileges common to the other inhabitants of this
town and province.

During my residence at New York, this time and in the two next years, I
was frequently in company with Jews. I was informed among other things,
that these people never boiled any meat for themselves on saturday, but
that they always did it the day before; and that in winter they kept a
fire during the whole saturday. They commonly eat no pork; yet I have
been told by several men of credit, that many of them (especially among
the young Jews) when travelling, did not not make the least difficulty
about eating this, or any other meat that was put before them; even
though they were in company with christians. I was in their synagogue
last evening for the first time, and this day at noon I visited it
again, and each time I was put into a particular seat which was set
apart for strangers or christians. A young Rabbi read the divine
service, which was partly in Hebrew, and partly in the Rabinical
dialect. Both men and women were dressed entirely in the English
fashion; the former had all of them their hats on, and did not once
take them off during service. The galleries, I observed, were
appropriated to the ladies, while the men sat below. During prayers the
men spread a white cloth over their heads; which perhaps is to
represent sack cloth. But I observed that the wealthier sort of people
had a much richer cloth than the poorer ones. Many of the men had
Hebrew books, in which they sang and read alternately. The Rabbi stood
in the middle of the synagogue, and read with his face turned towards
the east; he spoke however so fast, as to make it almost impossible for
any one to understand what he said. [40]

New York, the capital of a province of the same name is situated under
forty deg. and forty min. north lat. and forty seven deg. and four min.
of western long. from London; and is about ninety seven English miles
distant from Philadelphia. The situation of it is extremely
advantageous for trade: for the town stands upon a point which is
formed by two bays; into one of which the river Hudson discharges
itself, not far from the town; New York is therefore on three sides
surrounded with water; the ground it is built on, is level in some
parts, and hilly in others: the place is generally reckoned very
wholesome.

The town was first founded by the Dutch: this, it is said, was done in
the year 1623, when they were yet masters of the country: they called
it New Amsterdam, and the country itself New Holland. The English,
towards the end of the year 1664, taking possession of it under the
conduct of Des Cartes, and keeping it by the virtue of the next treaty
of peace, gave the name of New York to both the town, and the province
belonging to it: in size it comes nearest to Boston and Philadelphia.
But with regard to its fine buildings, its opulence, and extensive
commerce, it disputes the preference with them: at present it is about
half as big again as Gothenburgh in Sweden.

The streets do not run so straight as those of Philadelphia, and have
sometimes considerable bendings: however they are very spacious and
well built, and most of them are paved, except in high places, where it
has been found useless. In the chief streets there are trees planted,
which in summer give them a fine appearance, and during the excessive
heat at that time, afford a cooling shade: I found it extremely
pleasant to walk in the town, for it seemed quite like a garden: the
trees which are planted for this purpose are chiefly of two kinds. The
Water beech, or Linnæus’s Platanus occidentalis, are the most numerous,
and give an agreeable shade in summer, by their great and numerous
leaves. The Locust tree, or Linnæus’s Robinia Pseud-Acacia is likewise
frequent: its fine leaves, and the odoriferous scent which exhales from
its flowers, make it very proper for being planted in the streets near
the houses, and in gardens. There are likewise lime trees and elms, in
these walks, but they are not by far so frequent as the others: one
seldom met with trees of the same sort next to each other, they being
in general planted alternately.

Besides numbers of birds of all kinds which make these trees their
abode, there are likewise a kind of frogs which frequent them in great
numbers in summer, they are Dr. Linnæus’s Rana arborea, and especially
the American variety of this animal. They are very clamorous in the
evening and in the nights (especially when the days had been hot, and a
rain was expected) and in a manner drown the singing of the birds. They
frequently make such a noise, that it is difficult for a person to make
himself heard.

Most of the houses are built of bricks; and are generally strong and
neat, and several stories high. Some had, according to old
architecture, turned the gable-end towards the streets; but the new
houses were altered in this respect. Many of the houses had a balcony
on the roof, on which the people used to sit in the evenings in the
summer season; and from thence they had a pleasant view of a great part
of the town, and likewise of part of the adjacent water and of the
opposite shore. The roofs are commonly covered with tiles or shingles:
the latter of which are made of the white firtree, or Pinus Strobus
(Linn. sp. plant. page 1419.) which grows higher up in the country. The
inhabitants are of opinion that a roof made of these shingles is as
durable as one made in Pensylvania of the White Cedar, or Cupressus
thyoides (Linn. spec. plant, page 1422.) The walls were whitewashed
within, and I did not any where see hangings, with which the people in
this country seem in general to be but little acquainted. The walls
were quite covered with all sorts of drawings and pictures in small
frames. On each side of the chimnies they had usually a sort of alcove;
and the wall under the windows was wainscoted, and had benches placed
near it. The alcoves, and all the wood work were painted with a bluish
grey colour.

There are several churches in the town, which deserve some attention.
1. The English Church, built in the year 1695, at the west end of town,
consisting of stone, and has a steeple with a bell. 2. The new Dutch
Church, which is likewise built of stone, is pretty large and is
provided with a steeple, it also has a clock, which is the only one in
the town. This church stands almost due from north to south. No
particular point of the compass has here been in general attended to in
erecting sacred buildings. Some churches, stand as is usual from east
to west, others from south to north, and others in different positions.
In this Dutch church, there is neither altar, vestry, choir, sconces,
nor paintings. Some trees are planted round it, which make it look as
if it was built in a wood. 3. The old Dutch church, which is also built
of stone. It is not so large as the new one. It was painted in the
inside, though without any images, and adorned with a small organ, of
which governor Burnet made them a present. The men for the most part
sit in the gallery, and the women below. 4. The Presbyterian Church,
which is pretty large, and was built but lately. It is of stone, and
has a steeple and a bell in it. 5. The German Lutheran Church. 6. The
German Reformed Church. 7. The French Church, for protestant refugees.
8. The Quaker’s Meeting house. 9. To these may be added the Jewish
Synagogue, which I mentioned before.

Towards the sea, on the extremity of the promontory is a pretty good
fortress, called Fort George, which entirely commands the port, and can
defend the town, at least from a sudden attack on the sea side. Besides
that, it is likewise secured on the north or towards the shore, by a
pallisade, which however (as for a considerable time the people have
had nothing to fear from an enemy) is in many places in a very bad
state of defence.

There is no good water to be met with in the town itself, but at a
little distance there is a large spring of good water, which the
inhabitants take for their tea, and for the uses of the kitchen. Those
however, who are less delicate in this point, make use of the water
from the wells in town, though it be very bad. This want of good water
lies heavy upon the horses of the strangers that come to this place;
for they do not like to drink the water from the wells in the town.

The port is a good one: ships of the greatest burthen can lie in it,
quite close up to the bridge: but its water is very salt, as the sea
continually comes in upon it; and therefore is never frozen, except in
extraordinary cold weather. This is of great advantage to the city and
its commerce; for many ships either come in or go out of the port at
any time of the year; unless the winds be contrary; a convenience,
which as I have before observed, is wanting at Philadelphia. It is
secured from all violent hurricanes from the south-east by Long Island
which is situated just before the town: therefore only the storms from
the south-west are dangerous to the ships which ride at anchor here,
because the port is open only on that side. The entrance however has
its faults: one of them is, that no men of war can pass through it; for
though the water is pretty deep, yet it is not sufficiently so for
great ships. Sometimes even merchant ships of a large size have by the
rolling of the waves and by sinking down between them, slightly touched
the bottom, though without any bad consequences. Besides this, the
canal is narrow; and for this reason many ships have been lost here,
because they may be easily cast upon a sand, if the ship is not well
piloted. Some old people, who had constantly been upon this canal,
assured me, that it was neither deeper, nor shallower at present, than
in their youth.

The common difference between high and low water at New York, amounts
to about six feet, English measure. But at a certain time in every
month, when the tide flows more than commonly, the difference in the
height of the water is seven feet.

New York probably carries on a more extensive commerce, than any town
in the English North American provinces; at least it may be said to
equal them: Boston and Philadelphia however come very near up to it.
The trade of New York extends to many places, and it is said they send
more ships from thence to London, than they do from Philadelphia. They
export to that capital all the various sorts of skins which they buy of
the Indians, sugar, logwood, and other dying woods, rum, mahogany, and
many other goods which are the produce of the West Indies; together
with all the specie which they get in the course of trade. Every year
they build several ships here, which are sent to London, and there
sold; and of late years they have shipped a quantity of iron to
England. In return for these, they import from London stuffs and every
other article of English growth or manufacture, together with all sorts
of foreign goods. England, and especially London, profits immensely by
its trade with the American colonies; for not only New York, but
likewise all the other English towns on the continent, import so many
articles from England, that all their specie, together with the goods
which they get in other countries, must altogether go to Old England,
in order to pay the amount, to which they are however insufficient.
From hence it appears how much a well regulated colony contributes to
the increase and welfare of its mother country.

New York sends many ships to the West Indies, with flour, corn,
biscuit, timber, tuns, boards, flesh, fish, butter, and other
provisions; together with some of the few fruits that grow here. Many
ships go to Boston in New England, with corn and flour, and take in
exchange, flesh, butter, timber, different sorts of fish, and other
articles, which they carry further to the West Indies. They now and
then take rum from thence, which is distilled there in great
quantities, and sell it here with a considerable advantage. Sometimes
they send yachts with goods from New York to Philadelphia, and at other
times yachts are sent from Philadelphia to New York; which is only
done, as appears from the gazettes, because certain articles are
cheaper at one place than at the other. They send ships to Ireland
every year, laden with all kinds of West India goods; but especially
with linseed, which is reaped in this province. I have been assured,
that in some years no less than ten ships have been sent to Ireland,
laden with nothing but linseed; because it is said the flax in Ireland
does not afford good seed. But probably the true reason is this: the
people of Ireland, in order to have the better flax, make use of the
plant before the seed is ripe, and therefore are obliged to send for
foreign seed; and hence it becomes one of the chief articles in trade.

At this time a bushel of linseed is sold for eight shillings of New
York currency, or exactly a piece of eight.

The goods which are shipped to the West Indies, are sometimes paid for
with ready money, and sometimes with West India goods, which are either
first brought to New York, or immediately sent to England or Holland.
If a ship does not chuse to take in West India goods in its return to
New York, or if no body will freight it, it often goes to Newcastle in
England to take in coals for ballast, which when brought home sell for
a pretty good price. In many parts of the town coals are made use of,
both for kitchen fires, and in rooms, because they are reckoned cheaper
than wood, which at present costs thirty Shillings of New York currency
per fathom; of which measure I have before made mention. New York has
likewise some intercourse with South Carolina; to which it sends corn,
flour, sugar, rum, and other goods, and takes rice in return, which is
almost the only commodity exported from South Carolina.

The goods with which the province of New York trades are not very
numerous. They chiefly export the skins of animals, which are bought of
the Indians about Oswego; great quantities of boards, coming for the
most part from Albany; timber and ready made lumber, from that part of
the country which lies about the river Hudson; and lastly wheat, flour,
barley, oats and other kinds of corn, which are brought from New Jersey
and the cultivated parts of this province. I have seen yachts from New
Brunswick, laden with wheat which lay loose on board, and with flour
packed up into tuns; and also with great quantities of linseed. New
York likewise exports some flesh and other provisions out of its own
province, but they are very few; nor is the quantity of pease which the
people about Albany bring much greater. Iron however may be had more
plentifully, as it is found in several parts of this province, and is
of a considerable goodness; but all the other products of this country
are of little account.

Most of the wine, which is drank here and in the other colonies is
brought from the Isle of Madeira and is very strong and fiery.

No manufactures of note have as yet been established here; at present
they get all manufactured goods, such as woollen and linen cloth, &amp;c.
from England, and especially from London.

The river Hudson is very convenient for the commerce of this city; as
it is navigable for near a hundred and fifty English miles up the
country, and falls into the bay not far from the town, on its western
side. During eight months of the year this river is full of yachts, and
other greater and lesser vessels, either going to New York or returning
from thence, laden either with inland or foreign goods.

I cannot make a just estimate of the ships that annually come to this
town or sail from it. But I have found by the Pensylvania gazettes that
from the first of December in 1729, to the fifth of December in the
next year, 211 ships entered the port of New York, and 222 cleared it;
and since that time there has been a great increase of trade here.

The country people come to market in New York, twice a week much in the
same manner, as they do at Philadelphia; with this difference, that the
markets are here kept in several places.

The governor of the province of New York, resides here, and has a
palace in the fort. Among those who have been entrusted with this post,
William Burnet deserves to be had in perpetual remembrance. He was one
of the sons of Dr. Thomas Burnet (so celebrated on account of his
learning) and seemed to have inherited the knowledge of his father. But
his great assiduity in promoting the welfare of this province, is what
makes the principal merit of his character. The people of New York
therefore still reckon him the best governor they ever had, and think
that they cannot praise his services too much. The many astronomical
observations which he made in these parts, are inserted in several
English works. In the year 1727, at the accession of king George the
II. to the throne of Great Britain, he was appointed governor of New
England. In consequence of this he left New York, and went to Boston,
where he died universally lamented, on the 7th. of September 1729.

An assembly of deputies from all the particular districts of the
province of New York, is held at New York once or twice every year. It
may be looked upon as a parliament or dyet in miniature. Every thing
relating to the good of the province is here debated. The governor
calls the assembly, and dissolves it at pleasure: this is a power which
he ought only to make use of, either when no farther debates are
necessary, or when the members are not so unanimous in the service of
their king and country as is their duty: it frequently however happens,
that, led aside by caprice or by interested views, he exerts it to the
prejudice of the province. The colony has sometimes had a governor,
whose quarrels with the inhabitants, have induced their
representatives, or the members of the assembly, through a spirit of
revenge, to oppose indifferently every thing he proposed, whether it
was beneficial to the country or not. In such cases the governor has
made use of his power; dissolving the assembly, and calling another
soon after, which however he again dissolved upon the least mark of
their ill humour. By this means he so much tired them, by the many
expences which they were forced to bear in so short a time, that they
were at last glad to unite with him, in his endeavours for the good of
the province. But there have likewise been governors who have called
assemblies and dissolved them soon after, merely because the
representatives did not act according to their whims, or would not give
their assent to proposals which were perhaps dangerous or hurtful to
the common welfare.

The king appoints the governor according to his royal pleasure; but the
inhabitants of the province make up his excellency’s salary. Therefore
a man entrusted with this place has greater or lesser revenues,
according as he knows how to gain the confidence of the inhabitants.
There are examples of governors in this, and other provinces of North
America, who by their dissensions with the inhabitants of their
respective governments, have lost their whole salary, his Majesty
having no power to make them pay it. If a governor had no other
resource in these circumstances, he would be obliged either to resign
his office, or to be content with an income too small for his dignity;
or else to conform himself in every thing to the inclinations of the
inhabitants: but there are several stated profits, which in some
measure make up for this. 1. No one is allowed to keep a public house
without the governor’s leave; which is only to be obtained by the
payment of a certain fee, according to the circumstances of the person.
Some governors therefore, when the inhabitants refused to pay them a
salary, have hit upon the expedient of doubling the number of inns in
their province. 2. Few people who intend to be married, unless they be
very poor, will have their banns published from the pulpit; but instead
of this they get licences from the governor, which impower any minister
to marry them. Now for such a licence the governor receives about half
a guinea, and this collected throughout the whole province, amounts to
a considerable sum. 3. The governor signs all passports, and especially
of such as go to sea; and this gives him another means of supplying his
expences. There are several other advantages allowed to him, but as
they are very trifling, I shall omit them.

At the above assembly the old laws are reviewed and amended, and new
ones are made: and the regulation and circulation of coin, together
with all other affairs of that kind are there determined. For it is to
be observed that each English colony in North America is independent of
the other, and that each has its proper laws and coin, and may be
looked upon in several lights, as a state by itself. From hence it
happens, that in time of war, things go on very slowly and irregularly
here: for not only the sense of one province is sometimes directly
opposite to that of another; but frequently the views of the governor,
and those of the assembly of the same province, are quite different: so
that it is easy to see, that, while the people are quarrelling about
the best and cheapest manner of carrying on the war, an enemy has it in
his power to take one place after another. It has commonly happened
that whilst some provinces have been suffering from their enemies, the
neighbouring ones were quiet and inactive, and as if it did not in the
least concern them. They have frequently taken up two or three years in
considering whether they should give assistance to an oppressed sister
colony, and sometimes they have expresly declared themselves against
it. There are instances of provinces who were not only neuter in these
circumstances, but who even carried on a great trade with the power
which at that very time was attacking and laying waste some other
provinces.

The French in Canada, who are but an inconsiderable body, in comparison
with the English in America, have by this position of affairs been able
to obtain great Advantages in times of war; for if we judge from the
number and power of the English, it would seem very easy for them to
get the better of the French in America. [41]

It is however of great advantage to the crown of England, that the
North American colonies are near a country, under the government of the
French, like Canada. There is reason to believe that the king never was
earnest in his attempts to expel the French from their possessions
there; though it might have been done with little difficulty. For the
English colonies in this part of the world have encreased so much in
their number of inhabitants, and in their riches, that they almost vie
with Old England. Now in order to keep up the authority and trade of
their mother country, and to answer several other puposes, they are
forbid to establish new manufactures, which would turn to the
disadvantage of the British commerce: they are not allowed to dig for
any gold or silver, unless they send them to England immediately: they
have not the liberty of trading to any parts that do not belong to the
British dominions, excepting some settled places, and foreign traders
are not allowed to send their ships to them. These and some other
restrictions, occasion the inhabitants of the English colonies to grow
less tender for their mother country. This coldness is kept up by the
many foreigners such as Germans, Dutch and French settled here, and
living among the English, who commonly have no particular attachment to
Old England; add to this likewise that many people can never be
contented with their possessions, though they be ever so great, and
will always be desirous of getting more, and of enjoying the pleasure
which arises from changing; and their over great liberty, and their
luxury often lead them to licentiousness.

I have been told by Englishmen, and not only by such as were born in
America, but even by such as came from Europe, that the English
colonies in North-America, in the space of thirty or fifty years, would
be able to form a state by themselves, entirely independent on Old
England. But as the whole country which lies along the sea shore, is
unguarded, and on the land side is harrassed by the French, in times of
war these dangerous neighbours are sufficient to prevent the connection
of the colonies with their mother country from being quite broken off.
The English government has therefore sufficient reason to consider the
French in North-America, as the best means of keeping the colonies in
their due submission. But, I am almost gone too far from my purpose; I
will therefore finish my observations on New York.

The declination of the magnetic needle, in this town was observed by
Philip Wells, the chief engineer of the province of New York, in the
year 1686, to be eight deg. and forty-five min. to the westward. But in
1723, it was only seven deg. and twenty min. according to the
observations of governor Burnet.

From hence we may conclude that in thirty-eight years the magnet
approaches about one deg. and twenty five min. nearer to the true
north; or, which is the same thing, about two min. annually. Mr.
Alexander, a man of great knowledge in astronomy and in mathematics,
assured me from several observations, that in the year 1750, on the
eighteenth of September the deviation was to be reckoned six deg. and
twenty two min.

There are two printers in the town, and every week some English
gazettes are published, which contain news from all parts of the world.

The winter is much more severe here, than in Pensylvania; it being
nearly as cold as in some of the provinces of Sweden: its continuance
however is much shorter than with us: their spring is very early and
their autumn very late, and the heat in summer is excessive. For this
reason, the melons sown in the fields are ripe at the beginning of
August; whereas we can hardly bring them so soon to maturity under
glasses and on hot beds. The cold of the winter, I cannot justly
determine, as the meteorological observations which were communicated
to me, were all calculated after thermometers, which were so placed in
the houses, that the air could not freely come at them. The snow lies
for some months together upon the ground; and sledges are made use of
here as in Sweden, but they are rather too bulky. The river Hudson is
about an English mile and a half broad at its mouth: the difference
between the highest flood and the lowest ebb is between six and seven
feet, and the water is very brackish: yet the ice stands in it not only
one but even several months: it has sometimes a thickness of more than
two feet.

The inhabitants are sometimes greatly troubled with Musquitoes. They
either follow the hay which is made near the town, in the low meadows
which are quite penetrated with salt water; or they accompany the
cattle at night when it is brought home. I have myself experienced, and
have observed in others, how much these little animalcules can
disfigure a person’s face during a single night; for the skin is
sometimes so covered over with little blisters from their stings, that
people are ashamed to appear in public. The water melons which are
cultivated near the town grow very large: they are extremely delicious,
and are better than in other parts of North America; though they are
planted in the open fields and never in a hot-bed. I saw a water melon
at Governor Clinton’s in September 1750, which weighed forty seven
English pounds, and at a merchant’s in town another of forty two pounds
weight: however they were reckoned the biggest ever seen in this
country.

In the year 1710, five kings, or Sachems of the Iroquois went from
hence to England, in order to engage Queen Anne to make an alliance
with them against the French. Their names, dress, reception at court,
speeches to the Queen, opinion of England and of the European manners,
and several other particulars about them are sufficiently known from
other writings; it would therefore be here unnecessary to enlarge about
them. The kings or Sachems of the Indians, have commonly no greater
authority over their subjects than constables in a meeting of the
inhabitants of a parish, and hardly so much. On my travels through the
country of these Indians, I had never any occasion to go and wait upon
the Sachems; for they always came into my habitation without being
asked: these visits they commonly paid in order to get a glass or two
of brandy, which they value above any thing they know. One of the five
Sachems mentioned above, died in England; the others returned safe.

The first colonists in New York were Dutchmen: when the town and its
territories were taken by the English, and left them by the next peace
in exchange for Surinam, the old inhabitants were allowed either to
remain at New York, and to enjoy all the privileges and immunities
which they were possessed of before, or to leave the place with all
their goods: most of them chose the former; and therefore the
inhabitants both of the town and of the province belonging to it, are
yet for the greatest part Dutchmen; who still, especially the old
people, speak their mother tongue.

They begin however by degrees to change their manners and opinions;
chiefly indeed in the town and in its neighbourhood: for most of the
young people now speak principally English, and go only to the English
church; and would even take it amiss, if they were called Dutchmen and
not Englishmen.

Though the province of New York has been inhabited by Europeans, much
longer than Pensylvania, yet it is not by far so populous as that
colony. This cannot be ascribed to any particular discouragement
arising from the nature of the soil; for that is pretty good: but I was
told of a very different reason, which I will mention here. In the
reign of Queen Anne about the year 1709, many Germans came hither, who
got a tract of land from the government on which they might settle.
After they had lived there for some time, and had built houses and
churches, and made corn-fields and meadows, their liberties and
privileges were infringed, and under several pretences they were
repeatedly deprived of parts of their land. This at last rouzed the
Germans; they returned violence for violence, and beat those who thus
robbed them of their possessions. But these proceedings were looked
upon in a very bad light by the government: the most active people
among the Germans being taken up, they were very roughly treated, and
punished with the utmost rigour of the law. This however so far
exasperated the rest, that the greater part of them left their houses
and fields, and went to settle in Pensylvania: there they were
exceedingly well received, got a considerable tract of land, and were
indulged in great privileges which were given them forever. The Germans
not satisfied with being themselves removed from New York, wrote to
their relations and friends and advised them, if ever they intended to
come to America, not to go to New York, where the government had shewn
itself so unequitable. This advice had such influence, that the
Germans, who afterwards went in great numbers to North America,
constantly avoided New York and always went to Pensylvania. It
sometimes happened that they were forced to go on board such ships as
were bound to New York; but they were scarce got on shore, when they
hastened on to Pensylvania in sight of all the inhabitants of New York.

But the want of people in this province may likewise be accounted for
in a different manner. As the Dutch, who first cultivated this country,
obtained the liberty of staying here by the treaty with England, and of
enjoying all their privileges and advantages without the least
limitation, each of them took a very large piece of ground for himself,
and many of the more powerful heads of families made themselves the
possessors and masters of a country of as great an extent as would be
sufficient to form a middling and even a great parish. Most of them
being very rich, their envy of the English led them not to sell them
any land, but at an excessive rate; a practice which is still
punctually observed among their descendants. The English therefore as
well as people of different nations, have little encouragement to
settle here. On the other hand they have sufficient opportunity in the
other provinces, to purchase land at a more moderate price, and with
more security to themselves. It is not then to be wondered, that so
many parts of New York are still uncultivated, and have entirely the
appearance of desarts. This instance may teach us how much a small
mistake in a government will injure population.

November the 3d. About noon we set out from New York on our return, and
continuing our journey, we arrived at Philadelphia on the fifth of
November.

In the neighbourhood of this capital (of Pensylvania) the people had a
month ago made their cyder, which they were obliged to do, because
their apples were so ripe as to drop from the trees. But on our journey
through New York we observed the people still employed in pressing out
the cyder. This is a plain proof that in Pensylvania the apples are
sooner ripe than in New York; but whether this be owing to the nature
of the soil, or a greater heat of the summer in Philadelphia, or to
some other cause I know not. However there is not the least advantage
in making cyder so early: for long experience had taught the husbandmen
that it is worse for being made early in the year; the great heat in
the beginning of autumn being said to hinder the fermentation of the
juice.

There is a certain quadruped which is pretty common not only in
Pensylvania, but likewise in other provinces both of South and North
America, and goes by the name of Polecat among the English. In New York
they generally call it Skunk. The Swedes here by way of nickname called
it Fiskatta, on account of the horrid stench it sometimes causes as I
shall presently show. The French in Canada, for the same reason call it
Bête puante or stinking animal, and Enfant du diable or child of the
devil. Some of them likewise call it Pekan: Catesby in his Natural
History of Carolina, has described it in Vol. 2. p. 62. by the name of
Putorius Americanus striatus and drawn it plate 62. Dr. Linnæus calls
it Viverra Putorius. [42] This animal, which is very similar to the
Marten, is of about the same size and commonly black: on the back it
has a longitudinal white stripe and two others on each side, parallel
to the former. Sometimes but very seldom, some are seen which are quite
white. On our return to Philadelphia we saw one of these animals not
far from town near a farmer’s house, killed by dogs. And afterwards I
had during my stay in these parts several opportunities of seeing it
and of hearing its qualities. It keeps its young ones in holes in the
ground and in hollow trees; for it does not confine itself to the
ground, but climbs up trees with the greatest agility: it is a great
enemy to birds; for it breaks their eggs and devours their young ones;
and if it can get into a hen roost it soon destroys all its
inhabitants.

This animal has a particular quality by which it is principally known;
when it is pursued by men or dogs it runs at first as fast as it can,
or climbs upon a tree; but if it is so beset by its pursuers, as to
have no other way of making its escape, it squirts its urine upon them.
This according to some it does by wetting its tail with the urine
whence by a sudden motion it scatters it abroad; but others believe,
that it could send its urine equally far without the help of its tail;
I find the former of these accounts to be the most likely. For, some
credible people assured me, that they have had their faces wetted with
it all over; though they stood above eighteen feet off from the animal.
The urine has so horrid a stench that nothing can equal it: it is
something like that of the Cranesbill or Linnæus’s Geranium
robertianum, but infinitely stronger. If you come near a polecat when
it spreads its stench, you cannot breathe for a while, and it seems as
if you were stifled; and in case the urine comes into the eyes, a
person is likely to be blinded. Many dogs that in a chace pursue the
polecat very eagerly, run away as fast as they can when they are
wetted: however, if they be of the true breed, they will not give over
the pursuit till they have caught and killed the polecat; but they are
obliged now and then to rub their noses in the ground in order to
relieve themselves.

Clothes which have been wetted by this animal retain the smell for more
than a month; unless they be covered with fresh soil, and suffered to
remain under it for twenty four hours together; when it will in a great
measure be removed. Those likewise who have got any of this urine upon
their face and hands, rub them with loose earth; and some even hold
their hands in the ground for an hour; as washing will not help them so
soon. A certain man of rank who had by accident been wetted by the
polecat, stunk so ill, that on going into a house, the people either
ran away, or on his opening the door, rudely denied him entrance. Dogs
that have hunted a polecat are so offensive for some days afterwards,
that they cannot be borne in the house. At Philadelphia I once saw a
great number of people on a market day throwing at a dog that was so
unfortunate as to have been engaged with a polecat just before, and to
carry about him the tokens of its displeasure. Persons when travelling
through a forest are often troubled with the stink which this creature
makes; and sometimes the air is so much infected that it is necessary
to hold ones nose. If the wind blows from the place where the polecat
has been, or if it be quite calm, as at night, the smell is more strong
and disagreeable.

In the winter of 1749, a polecat tempted by a dead lamb, came one night
near the farm house where I then slept. Being immediately pursued by
some dogs, it had recourse to its usual expedient in order to get rid
of them. The attempt succeeded, the dogs not choosing to continue the
pursuit: the stink was so extremely great that, though I was at some
distance it affected me in the same manner as if I had been stifled;
and it was so disagreeable to the cattle that it made them roar very
loudly: however, by degrees it vanished. Towards the end of the same
year one of these animals got into our cellar, but no stench was
observed, for it only vents that when it is pursued. The cook however
found for several days together that some of the meat which was kept
there was eaten; and suspecting that it was done by the cat she shut up
all avenues, in order to prevent their getting at it. But the next
night being awoke by a noise in the cellar, she went down, and though
it was quite dark, saw an animal with two shining eyes, which seemed to
be all on fire; she however resolutely killed it, but not before the
polecat had filled the cellar with a most dreadful stench. The maid was
sick of it for several days; and all the bread, flesh, and other
provisions kept in the cellar were so penetrated with it, that we could
not make the least use of them, and were forced to throw them all away.

From an accident that happened at New York to one of my acquaintances,
I conclude that the polecat either is not always very shy, or that it
sleeps very hard at night. This man coming home out of a wood in a
summer evening, thought that he saw a plant standing before him;
stooping to pluck it, he was to his cost convinced of his mistake, by
being all on a sudden covered with the urine of a polecat, whose tail
as it stood upright, the good man had taken for a plant: the creature
had taken its revenge so effectually that he was much at a loss how to
get rid of the stench.

However though these animals play such disagreeable tricks, yet the
English, the Swedes, the French, and the Indians in these parts tame
them. They follow their masters like domestic animals, and never make
use of their urine, except they be very much beaten or terrified. When
the Indians kill such a polecat, they always eat its flesh, but when
they pull off its skin, they take care to cut away the bladder, that
the flesh may not get a taste from it. I have spoken with both
Englishmen and Frenchmen, who assured me that they had eaten of it, and
found it very good meat, and not much unlike the flesh of a pig. The
skin which is pretty coarse, and has long hair, is not made use of by
the Europeans; but the Indians prepare it with the hair on, and make
tobacco pouches of it, which they carry before them.

November the 6th. In the evening I went out of town to Mr. Bartram, I
found a man with him, who lived in Carolina and I obtained several
particulars about that province from him; a few of which I will here
mention.

Tar, pitch and rice are the chief products of Carolina. The soil is
very sandy, and therefore many pines and firs grow in it, from which
they make tar: the firs which are taken for this purpose are commonly
such as are dried up of themselves; the people here in general not
knowing how to prepare the firs by taking the bark off on one, or on
several sides, as they do in Ostrobothnia. In some parts of Carolina
they likewise make use of the branches. The manner of burning or
boiling, as the man describes it to me, is entirely the same as in
Finland. The pitch is thus made: they dig a hole into the ground and
smear the inside well with clay, into which they pour the tar, and make
a fire round it, which is kept up till the tar has got the consistence
of pitch. They make two kinds of tar in the North American colonies:
one is the common tar, which I have above described, and which is made
of the stems, branches, and roots of such firs, as were already
considerably dried out before; which is the most common way in this
country. The other way in peeling the bark from the firs on one side,
and afterwards letting them stand another year; during which the resin
comes out between the cracks of the item. The tree is then felled and
burnt for tar; and the tar thus made is called green tar, not that
there is that difference of colour in it, for in this respect they are
both pretty much alike; but the latter is called so from being made of
green and fresh trees; whereas common tar is made of dead trees: the
burning is done in the same manner as in Finland. They use only black
firs; for the white firs will not serve this purpose, though they are
excellent for boards, masts, &amp;c. green tar is dearer than common tar.
It is already a pretty general complaint that the fir woods are almost
wholly destroyed by this practice.

Rice is planted in great quantity in Carolina: it succeeds best in
marshy and swampy grounds, which may be laid under water, and likewise
ripens there the soonest. Where these cannot be had, they must choose a
dry soil; but the rice produced here will be much inferior to the
other: the land on which it is cultivated must never be manured. In
Carolina they sow it in the middle of April, and it is ripe in
September: it is planted in rows like pease, and commonly fifteen
inches space is left between the rows; as soon as the plants are come
up, the field is laid under water. This not only greatly forwards the
growth of the rice, but likewise kills all weeds, so as to render
weeding unnecessary. The straw of rice is said to be excellent food for
cattle, who eat it very greedily. Rice requires a hot climate, and
therefore it will not succeed well in Virginia, the summer there being
too short, and the winter too cold; and much less will it grow in
Pensylvania. They are as yet ignorant in Carolina of the art of making
arrack from rice: it is chiefly South Carolina that produces the
greatest quantity of rice; and on the other hand they make the most tar
in North Carolina.

November the 7th. The stranger from Carolina whom I have mentioned
before, had met with many oyster shells at the bottom of a well,
seventy English miles distant from the sea, and four from a river: they
lay in a depth of fourteen English feet from the surface of the earth:
the water in the well was brackish; but that in the river was fresh.
The same man, had at the building of a saw-mill, a mile and a half from
a river, found, first sand, and then clay filled with oyster shells.
Under these he found several bills of sea birds as he called them,
which were already quite petrified: they were probably Glossopetræ.

There are two species of foxes in the English colonies, the one grey,
and the other red: but in the sequel I shall shew that there are others
which sometimes appear in Canada. The grey foxes are here constantly,
and are very common in Pensylvania and in the southern provinces: in
the northern ones they are pretty scarce, and the French in Canada,
call them Virginian Foxes on that account: in size they do not quite
come up to our foxes. They do no harm to lambs; but they prey upon all
sorts of poultry, whenever they can come at them. They do not however
seem to be looked upon as animals that cause a great deal of damage;
for there is no reward given for killing them: their skin is greatly
sought for by hatters, who employ the hair in their work. People have
their clothes lined with it sometimes: the grease is used against all
sorts of rheumatic pains. These foxes are said to be less nimble than
the red ones: they are sometimes tamed; though they be not suffered to
run about but are tied up. Mr. Catesby has drawn and described this
sort of foxes in his Natural history of Carolina, by the name of the
grey American fox, vol. 2. p. 78. tab. 78. A skin of it was sold in
Philadelphia for two shillings and six-pence in Pensylvanian currency.

The red Foxes are very scarce here: they are entirely the same with the
European sort. Mr. Bartram, and several others assured me, that
according to the unanimous testimony of the Indians, this kind of foxes
never was in the country, before the Europeans settled in it. But of
the manner of their coming over I have two different accounts: Mr.
Bartram and several other people were told by the Indians, that these
foxes came into America soon after the arrival of the Europeans, after
an extraordinary cold winter, when all the sea to the northward was
frozen: from hence they would infer, that they could perhaps get over
to America upon the ice from Greenland or the northern parts of Europe
and Asia. But Mr. Evans, and some others assured me that the following
account was still known by the people. A gentleman of fortune in New
England, who had a great inclination for hunting, brought over a great
number of foxes from Europe, and let them loose in his territories,
that he might be able to indulge his passion for hunting. [43] This is
said to have happened almost at the very beginning of New England’s
being peopled with European inhabitants. These foxes were believed to
have so multiplied, that all the red foxes in the country were their
offspring. At present they are reckoned among the noxious creatures in
these parts; for they are not contented, as the grey foxes with killing
fowl; but they likewise devour the lambs. In Pensylvania therefore
there is a reward of two shillings for killing an old fox, and of one
shilling for killing a young one. And in all the other provinces there
are likewise rewards offer’d for killing them, Their skin is in great
request, and is sold as dear as that of the grey foxes, that is two
shillings and six-pence, in Pensylvanian currency.

They have two varieties of Wolves here, which however seem to be of the
same species. For some of them are yellowish, or almost pale grey, and
others are black or dark brown. All the old Swedes related, that during
their childhood, and still more at the arrival of their fathers, there
were excessive numbers of wolves in the country, and that their howling
and yelping might be heard all night. They likewise frequently tore in
pieces, sheep, hogs, and other young and small cattle. About that time
or soon after, when the Swedes and the English were quite settled here,
the Indians were attacked by the small pox: this disease they got from
the Europeans, for they knew nothing of it before: it killed many
hundreds of them, and most of the Indians of the country, then called
New Sweden died of it. The wolves then came, attracted by the stench of
so many corpses, in such great numbers that they devoured them all, and
even attacked the poor sick Indians in their huts, so that the few
healthy ones had enough to do, to drive them away. But since that time
they have disappeared, so that they are now seldom seen, and it is very
rarely that they commit any disorders. This is attributed to the
greater cultivation of the country, and to their being killed in great
numbers. But further up the country, where it is not yet so much
inhabited, they are still very abundant. On the coasts of Pensylvania
and New Jersey, the sheep stay all night in the fields, without the
people’s fearing the wolves: however to prevent their multiplying too
much, there is a reward of twenty shillings in Pensylvania and of
thirty in New Jersey, for delivering in a dead wolf, and the person
that brings it may keep the skin. But for a young wolf the reward is
only ten shillings of the Pensylvanian currency. There are examples of
these wolves being made as tame as dogs.

The wild Oxen have their abode principally in the woods of Carolina,
which are far up in the country. The inhabitants frequently hunt them,
and salt their flesh like common beef, which is eaten by servants and
the lower class of people. But the hide is of little use, having too
large pores to be made use of for shoes. However the poorer people in
Carolina, spread these hides on the ground instead of beds.

The Viscum filamentosum, or Fibrous misletoe, is found in abundance in
Carolina; the inhabitants make use of it as straw in their beds, and to
adorn their houses; the cattle are very fond of it: it is likewise
employed in packing goods.

The Spartium scoparium grew in Mr. Bartram’s garden from English seeds;
he said that he had several bushes of it, but that the frost in the
cold winters here had killed most of them: they however grow
spontaneously in Sweden.

Mr. Bartram had same Truffles, or Linnæus’s Lycoperdon Tuber, which he
had got out of a sandy soil in New Jersey, where they are abundant.
These he shewed to his friend from Carolina, and asked him whether they
were the Tuckahoo of the Indians. But the stranger denied it, and added
that though these truffles were likewise very common in Carolina, yet
he had never seen them used any other way but in milk, against the
dysentery; and he gave us the following description of the Tuckahoo. It
grows in several swamps and marches, and is commonly plentiful. The
hogs greedily dig up its roots with their noses in such places; and the
Indians in Carolina likewise gather them in their rambles in the woods,
dry them in the sun shine, grind them and bake bread of them. Whilst
the root is fresh it is harsh and acrid, but being dried it loses the
greatest part of its acrimony. To judge by these qualities the Tuckahoo
may very likely be the Arum Virginianum. Compare with this account,
what shall be related in the sequel of the Tahim and Tuckah.

After dinner I again returned to town.

November the 8th. Several English and Swedish oeconomists kept
bee-hives, which afforded their possessors profit: for bees succeed
very well here: the wax was for the most part sold to tradesmen: but
the honey they made use of in their own families, in different ways.
The people were unanimous, that the common bees were not in North
America before the arrival of the Europeans; but that they were first
brought over by the English who settled here. The Indians likewise
generally declare, that their fathers had never seen any bees either in
the woods or any where else, before the Europeans had been several
years settled here. This is further confirmed by the name which the
Indians give them: for having no particular name for them in their
language, they call them English flies, because the English first
brought them over: but at present they fly plentifully about the woods
of North America. However it has been observed that the bees always
when they swarm, spread to the southward, and never to the northward.
It seems as if they do not find the latter countries so good for their
constitution: therefore they cannot stay in Canada, and all that have
been carried over thither, died in winter. It seemed to me as if the
bees in America were somewhat smaller than ours in Sweden. They have
not yet been found in the woods on the other side of the Blue
Mountains, which confirms the opinion of their being brought to America
of late. A man told Mr. Bartram, that on his travels in the woods of
North America, he had found another sort of bees, which, instead of
separating their wax and honey, mixed it both together in a great bag.
But this account wants both clearing up and confirming.

November the 9th. All the old Swedes and Englishmen born in America
whom I ever questioned, asserted that there were not near so many birds
fit for eating at present, as there used to be when they were children,
and that their decrease was visible. They even said, that they had
heard their fathers complain of this, in whose childhood the bays,
rivers and brooks were quite covered with all sorts of water fowls such
as wild geese, ducks, and the like. But at present there is sometimes
not a single bird upon them; about sixty or seventy years ago, a single
person could kill eighty ducks in a morning; but at present you
frequently wait in vain for a single one. A Swede above ninety years
old, assured me that he had in his youth killed twenty-three ducks at a
shot. This good luck no body is likely to have at present, as you are
forced to ramble about for a whole day, without getting a sight of more
than three or four. Cranes [44] at that time came hither by hundreds in
the spring: at present there are but very few. The wild Turkeys, and
the birds which the Swedes in this country call Partridges and
Hazel-hens were in whole flocks in the woods. But at this time a person
is tired with walking before he can start a single bird.

The cause of this diminution is not difficult to find. Before the
arrival of the Europeans, the country was uncultivated, and full of
great forests. The few Indians that lived here seldom disturbed the
birds. They carried on no trade among themselves, iron and gun powder
were unknown to them. One hundredth part of the fowl which at that time
were so plentiful here, would have sufficed to feed the few
inhabitants; and considering that they cultivated their small maize
fields, caught fish, hunted stags, beavers, bears, wild cattle, and
other animals whose flesh was delicious to them, it will soon appear
how little they disturbed the birds. But since the arrival of great
crouds of Europeans, things are greatly changed; the country is well
peopled, and the woods are cut down: the people increasing in this
country, they have by hunting and shooting in part extirpated the
birds, in part scared them away: in spring the people still take both
eggs, mothers and young indifferently, because no regulations are made
to the contrary. And if any had been made, the spirit of freedom which
prevails in the country would not suffer them to be obeyed. But though
the eatable birds have been diminished greatly, yet there are others,
which have rather increased than decreased in number, since the arrival
of the Europeans: this can most properly be said of a species of daws
which the English call Blackbirds [45] and the Swedes Maize thieves,
Dr. Linnæus calls them Gracula Quiscula. And together with them, the
several sorts of Squirrels among the quadrupeds have spread: for these
and the former, live chiefly upon maize, or at least they are most
greedy of it. But as population increases, the cultivation of maize
increases, and of course the food of the above-mentioned animals is
more plentiful: to this it is to be added, that these latter are rarely
eaten, and therefore they are more at liberty to multiply their kind.
There are likewise other birds which are not eaten, of which at present
there are nearly as many as there were before the arrival of the
Europeans. On the other hand I heard great complaints of the great
decrease of eatable fowl, not only in this province, but in all the
parts of North America, where I have been.

Aged people had experienced that with the fish, which I have just
mentioned of the birds: in their youth, the bays, rivers, and brooks,
had such quantities of fish that at one draught in the morning, they
caught as many as a horse was able to carry home. But at present things
are greatly altered; and they often work in vain all the night long,
with all their fishing tackle. The causes of this decrease of fish, are
partly the same with those of the diminution of the number of birds;
being of late caught by a greater variety of contrivances, and in
different manners than before. The numerous mills on the rivers and
brooks likewise contribute to it in part: for it has been observed
here, that the fish go up the river in order to spawn in a shallow
water; but when they meet with works that prevent their proceeding,
they turn back, and never come again. Of this I was assured by a man of
fortune at Boston: his father was used to catch a number of herrings
throughout the winter and almost always in summer, in a river, upon his
country seat: but he having built a mill with a dyke in this water,
they were lost. In this manner they complained here and every where of
the decrease of fish. Old people asserted the same in regard to oysters
at New York; for though they are still taken in considerable quantity,
and are as big and as delicious as can be wished, yet all the
oyster-catchers own, that the number diminishes greatly every year: the
most natural cause of it, is probably the immoderate catching of them
at all times of the year.

Mr. Franklin told me that in that part of New England, where his father
lived, two rivers fell into the sea, in one of which, they caught great
numbers of herring, and in the other not one. Yet the places where
these rivers discharged themselves into the sea, were not far asunder.
They had observed that when the herrings came in spring to deposit
their spawn, they always swam up the river where they used to catch
them, but never came into the other. This circumstance led Mr.
Franklin’s father who was settled between the two rivers, to try
whether it was not possible to make the herrings likewise live in the
other river. For that purpose he put out his nets, as they were coming
up for spawning, and he caught some. He took the spawn out of them, and
carefully carried it across the land into the other river. It was
hatched, and the consequence was, that every year afterwards they
caught more herrings in that river; and this is still the case. This
leads one to believe that the fish always like to spawn in the same
place where they were hatched, and from whence they first put out to
sea; being as it were accustomed to it.

The following is another peculiar observation. It has never formerly
been known that codfish were to be caught at cape Hinlopen: they were
always caught at the mouth of the Delaware: but at present they are
numerous in the former place. From hence it may be concluded that fish
likewise change their places of abode, of their own accord.

A captain of a ship who had been in Greenland, asserted from his own
experience, that on passing the seventieth deg. of north lat. the
summer heat was there much greater, than it is below that degree. From
hence he concluded, that the summer heat at the pole itself, must be
still more excessive, since the sun shines there for such a long space
of time, without ever setting. The same account with similar
consequences drawn from thence, Mr. Franklin had heard of the ship
captains in Boston, who had sailed to the most northern parts of this
hemisphere. But still more astonishing is the account he got from
captain Henry Atkins, who still lives at Boston. He had for some time
been upon the fishery along the coasts of New England. But not catching
as much as he wished, he sailed north, as far as Greenland. At last he
went so far, that he discovered people, who had never seen Europeans
before (and what is more astonishing) who had no idea of the use of
fire, which they had never employed; and if they had known it, they
could have made no use of their knowledge, as there were no trees in
the country. But they eat the birds and fish which they caught quite
raw. Captain Atkins got some very scarce skins in exchange for some
trifles.

It is already known from several accounts of voyages, that to the
northward neither trees nor bushes, nor any ligneous plants are to be
met with, fit for burning. But is it not probable that the inhabitants
of so desolate a country, like other northern nations which we know,
burn the train oil of fishes, and the fat of animals in lamps, in order
to boil their meat, to warm their subterraneous caves in winter, and to
light them in the darkest season of the year? else their darkness would
be insupportable.

November the 11th. In several writings we read of a large animal, which
is to be met with in New England and other parts of North America. They
sometimes dig very long and branched horns out of the ground in
Ireland, and no body in that country or any where else in the world,
knows an animal that has such horns. This has induced many people to
believe that it is the Moose-deer so famous in North America, and that
the horns found, were of animals of this kind, which had formerly lived
in that island, but were gradually destroyed. It has even been
concluded, that Ireland, in distant ages either was connected with
North America, or that a number of little islands, which are lost at
present, made a chain between them. This led me to enquire, whether an
animal with such excessive great horns, as are ascribed to the
Moose-deer, had ever been seen in any part of this country. Mr. Bartram
told me, that notwithstanding he had carefully enquired to that
purpose, yet there was no person who could give him any information,
which could be relied upon, and therefore he was entirely of opinion,
that there was no such an animal in North America. Mr. Franklin related
that he had, when a boy, seen two of the animals which they call
Moose-deer, but he well remembered that they were not near of such a
size as they must have been, if the horns found in Ireland were to fit
them: the two animals which he saw, were brought to Boston in order to
be sent to England to Queen Ann. The height of the animal up to the
back was that of a pretty tall horse; but the head and its horns were
still higher: Mr. Dudley has given a description of the Moose-deer
which is found in North America. On my travels in Canada, I often
enquired of the Frenchmen, whether there had ever been seen so large an
animal in this country, as some people say there is in North America;
and with such great horns as are sometimes dug out in Ireland. But I
was always told, that they had never heard of it, and much less seen
it: some added, that if there was such an animal, they certainly must
have met with it, in some of their excursions in the woods. There are
elks here, which are either of the same sort with the Swedish ones, or
a variety of them: of these they often catch some which are larger than
common, whence perhaps the report of the very large animal with
excessive horns in North America first had its rise. These elks are
called Original’s by the French in Canada, which name they have
borrowed from the Indians: perhaps Dudley, in describing the
Moose-deer, meant no other animals, than these large elks. [46]

Mr. Franklin gave me a piece of a stone, which on account of its
indestructibility in the fire, is made use of in New England for making
melting furnaces and forges.

It consists of a mixture of Lapis Ollaris or Serpentine stone, and of
Asbest. The greatest part of it is a grey Serpentine stone, which is
fat and smooth to the touch, and is easily cut and worked. Here and
there are some glittering speckles of that sort of asbest, whose fibres
come from a center like rays, or Star Asbest. This stone is not found
in strata or solid rocks, but here and there scattered on the fields.

Another stone is called Soapstone by many of the Swedes, being as
smooth as soap on the outside. They make use of it for rubbing spots
out of their cloaths. It might be called Saxum talcosum particulus
spataceis, granatisque immixtis, or a talc with mixed particles of spar
and garnets. A more exact description I reserve for another work. At
present I only add that the ground colour is pale green, with some dark
spots, and sometimes a few of a greenish hue. It is very smooth to the
touch, and runs always waved. It is likewise easily sawed and cut,
though it is not very smooth. I have seen large stones of it, which
were a fathom and more long, proportionably broad, and commonly six
inches or a foot deep. But I cannot determine any thing of their
original size, as I have not been at the place where they are dug, and
have only seen the stones at Philadelphia, which are brought there
ready cut. The particles of talc in this stone are about thirty times
as many as those of spar and garnet. It is found in many parts of the
country, for example in the neighbourhood of Chester in Pennsylvania.
The English likewise call it Soapstone, [47] and it is likely that the
Swedes have borrowed that name from them.

This stone was chiefly employed in the following manner. First, the
people took spots out of their cloaths with it. But for this purpose
the whole stone is not equally useful, for it includes in its clear
particles some dark ones which consist wholly of serpentine stone, and
may easily be cut with a knife; some of the loose stone is scraped off
like a powder, and strewed upon a greasy spot, in silk or any other
fluff; this imbibes the grease, and after rubbing off the powder the
spot disappears: and as this stone is likewise very durable in the
fire, the country people make their hearths with it, especially the
place where the fire lies, and where the heat is the greatest, for the
stone stands the strongest fire. If the people can get a sufficient
quantity of this stone, they lay the steps before the houses with it,
instead of bricks, which are generally used for that purpose.

The walls round the court yards, gardens, burying places, and those for
the sloping cellar doors towards the street, which are all commonly
built of brick, are covered with a coping of this stone; for it holds
excellently against all the effects of the sun, air, rain and storm,
and does not decay but secures the bricks. On account of this quality,
people commonly get the door posts in which their hinges are fastened
made of this stone: and in several publick buildings, such as the house
of assembly for the province, the whole lower wall is built of it, and
in other houses the corners are laid out with it.

The Salt which is used in the English North American colonies is
brought from the West Indies. The Indians have in some places salt
springs from which they get salt by boiling. I shall in the sequel have
occasion to describe some of them. Mr. Franklin was of opinion that the
people in Pensylvania could easier make good salt of sea water, than in
New England, where sometimes salt is made of the sea water on their
coast; though their situation is more northerly. Lead-ore has been
discovered in Pensylvania, but as it is not to be met with in quantity,
no body ever attempted to use it. Loadstones of considerable goodness
have likewise been found; and I myself possess several pretty pieces of
them.

Iron is dug in such great quantities in Pensylvania and in the other
American provinces of the English, that they could provide with that
commodity not only England, but almost all Europe, and perhaps the
greater part of the globe. The ore is here commonly infinitely easier
got in the mines, than our Swedish ore. For in many places with a pick
ax, a crow-foot and a wooden club, it is got with the same ease with
which a hole can be made in a hard soil: in many places the people know
nothing of boring, blasting and firing; and the ore is likewise very
fusible. Of this iron they get such quantities, that not only the
numerous inhabitants of the colonies themselves have enough of it, but
great quantities, are sent to the West Indies, and they have lately
began even to trade to Europe with it. This iron is reckoned better for
ship building than our Swedish iron, or any other, because salt water
does not corrode it so much. Some people believed that without
reckoning the freight, they could sell their iron in England at a lower
rate than any other nation; especially when the country becomes better
peopled and labour cheaper.

The mountain flax, [48] or that kind of stone, which Bishop Browallius
calls Amiantus fibris separabilibus molliusculis, in his lectures on
mineralogy which were published in 1739, or the amiant with soft fibres
which can easily be separated, is found abundantly in Pensylvania. Some
pieces are very soft, others pretty tough: Mr. Franklin told me that
twenty and some odd years ago, when he made a voyage to England, he had
a little purse with him, made of the mountain flax of this country,
which he presented to Sir Hans Sloane. I have likewise seen paper made
of this stone: and I have likewise received some small pieces of it,
which I keep in my cabinet. Mr. Franklin had been told by others that
on exposing this mountain flax to the open air in winter, and leaving
it in the cold and wet, it would grow together, and more fit for
spinning. But he did not venture to determine how far this opinion was
grounded. On this occasion he related a very pleasant accident, which
happened to him with this mountain flax: he had, several years ago, got
a piece of it, which he gave to one of his journeymen printers, in
order to get it made into a sheet at the paper mill. As soon as the
fellow brought the paper, Mr. Franklin rolled it up, and threw it into
the fire, telling the journeyman he would see a miracle, a sheet of
paper which did not burn: the ignorant fellow asserted the contrary,
but was greatly astonished, upon seeing himself convinced. Mr. Franklin
then explained him, though not very clearly, the peculiar qualities of
the paper. As soon as he was gone, some of his acquaintance came in,
who immediately knew the paper. The journeyman thought he would shew
them a great curiosity and astonish them. He accordingly told them that
he had curiously made a sheet of paper, which would not burn, though it
was thrown into the fire. They pretended to think it impossible, and he
as strenuously maintained his assertion. At last they laid a wager
about it; but whilst he was busy with stirring up the fire, the others
slyly besmeared the paper with fat: the journeyman, who was not aware
of it, threw it into the fire, and that moment it was all in flames:
this astonished him so much, that he was almost speechless; upon which
they could not help laughing, and so discovered the whole artifice.

In several houses of the town, a number of little Ants run about,
living underground and in holes in the wall. The length of their bodies
is one geometrical line. Their colour is either black or dark red: they
have the custom of carrying off sweet things, if they can come at them,
in common with the ants of other countries. Mr. Franklin was much
inclined to believe that these little insects could by some means
communicate their thoughts or desires to each other, and he confirmed
his opinion by some examples. When an ant finds some sugar, it runs
immediately under ground to its hole, where having stayed a little
while, a whole army comes out, unites and marches to the place where
the sugar is, and carries it off by pieces: or if an ant meets with a
dead fly, which it cannot carry alone, it immediately hastens home, and
soon after some more come out, creep to the fly and carry it away. Some
time ago Mr. Franklin put a little earthen pot with treacle into a
closet. A number of ants got into the pot, and devoured the treacle
very quietly. But as he observed it he shook them out, and tied the pot
with a thin string to a nail which he had fastened in the ceiling; so
that the pot hung down by the string. A single ant by chance remained
in the pot: this ant eat till it was satisfied; but when it wanted to
get off, it was under great concern to find its way out: it ran about
the bottom of the pot, but in vain: at last it found after many
attempts the way to get to the ceiling by the string. After it was come
there, it ran to the wall, and from thence to the ground. It had hardly
been away for half an hour, when a great swarm of ants came out, got up
to the ceiling, and crept along the string into the pot, and began to
eat again: this they continued till the treacle was all eaten: in the
mean time one swarm running down the string, and the other up.

November the 12th. A man of fortune who has long been in this province
asserted, that, by twenty years experience, he had found a confirmation
of what other people have observed with regard to the weather, viz.
that the weather in winter was commonly foretold by that on the first
of November, old stile, or twelfth new stile; if that whole day be
fair, the next winter will bring but little rain and snow along with
it: but if the first half of the day be clear, and the other cloudy,
the beginning of winter would accordingly be fair, but its end and
spring would turn out rigorous and disagreeable: of the same kind were
the other presages. I have likewise in other places heard of similar
signs of the weather; but as a mature judgment greatly lessens the
confidence in them, so the meteorological observations have
sufficiently shewn, how infinitely often these prophecies have failed.

Pensylvania abounds in springs, and you commonly meet with a spring of
clear water on one or the other, and sometimes on several sides of a
mountain. The people near such springs, use them for every purpose of a
fine spring water. They also conduct the water into a little stone
building near the house, where they can confine it, and bring fresh
supplies at pleasure. In summer they place their milk, bottles of wine
and other liquors in this building, where they keep cool and fresh. In
many country houses, the kitchen or buttery was so situated, that a
rivulet ran under it, and had the water near at hand.

Not only people of fortune, but even others that had some possessions,
commonly had fish ponds in the country near their houses. They always
took care that fresh water might run into their ponds, which is very
salutary for the fish: for that purpose the ponds were placed near a
spring on a hill.

November the 13th. I saw in several parts of this province a ready
method of getting plenty of grass to grow in the meadows. Here must be
remembered what I have before mentioned about the springs, which are
sometimes found on the sides of hills and sometimes in vallies. The
meadows lie commonly in the vallies between the hills: if they are too
swampy and wet, the water is carried off by several ditches. But the
summer in Pensylvania is very hot; and the sun often burns the grass so
much, that it dries up entirely. The husbandmen therefore have been
very attentive to prevent this in their meadows: to that purpose they
look for all the springs in the neighbourhood of a meadow; and as the
rivulets flowed before by the shortest way into the vallies, they raise
the water as much as possible and necessary, to the higher part of the
meadow, and make several narrow channels from the brook, down into the
plain, so that it is entirely watered by it. When there are some deeper
places, they frequently lay wooden gutters across them, through which
the water flows to the other side; and from thence it is again by very
narrow channels carried to all the places where it seems necessary. To
raise the water the higher, and in order to spread it more, there are
high dykes built near the springs, between which the water rises till
it is so high as to run down where the people want it. Industry and
ingenuity went further: when a brook runs in a wood, with a direction
not towards the meadow, and it has been found by levelling, and taking
an exact survey of the land between the meadow and the rivulet, that
the latter can be conducted towards the former; a dyke is made, which
hems the course of the brook, and the water is led round the meadow
over many hills, sometimes for the space of an English mile and
further, partly across vallies in wooden pipes, till at last it is
brought where it is wanted, and where it can be spread as
above-mentioned. One that has not seen it himself, cannot believe how
great a quantity of grass there is in such meadows, especially near the
little channels; whilst others, which have not been thus managed look
wretchedly. The meadows commonly lie in the vallies, and one or more of
their sides have a declivity. The water can therefore easily be brought
to run down in them. These meadows which are so carefully watered, are
commonly mowed three times every summer. But it is likewise to be
observed, that summer continues seven months here. The inhabitants
seldom fail to employ a brook or spring in this manner, if it is not
too far from the meadows to be led to them.

The leaves were at present fallen from all the trees; both from oaks,
and from all those which have deciduous leaves, and they covered the
ground in the woods six inches deep. The great quantity of leaves which
drop annually, would necessarily seem to encrease the upper black mould
greatly. However, it is not above three or four inches thick in the
woods, and under it lays a brick coloured clay, mixed with a sand of
the same colour. It is remarkable, that a soil which in all probability
has not been stirred, should be covered with so little black mould: but
I shall speak of this in the sequel.

November the 14th. The Squirrels which run about plentifully in the
woods are of different species; I here intend to describe the most
common sorts, more accurately.

The grey Squirrels are very plentiful in Pensylvania and in the other
provinces of North America. Their shape corresponds with that of our
Swedish squirrel; but they differ from them, by keeping their grey
colour all the year long, and in size being something bigger. The woods
in all these provinces, and chiefly in Pensylvania, consist of trees
with deciduous leaves, and in such these squirrels like to live. Ray in
his Synopsis Quadrupedum, p. 215, and Catesby in his Natural History of
Carolina, Vol. 2. p. 74, tab. 74, call it the Virginian greater grey
Squirrel; and the latter has added a figure after life. The Swedes call
it grao Ickorn, which is the same as the English grey Squirrel. Their
nests are commonly in hollow trees, and are made of moss, straw, and
other soft things: their food is chiefly nuts; as hazel nuts,
chinquapins, chesnuts, walnuts, hiccory nuts, and the acorns of the
different sorts of oak which grow here; but maize is what they are most
greedy of. The ground in the woods is in autumn covered with acorns,
and all kinds of nuts which drop from the numerous trees: of these the
squirrels gather great stores for winter, which they lay up in holes
dug by them for that purpose: they likewise carry a great quantity of
them into their nests.

As soon as winter comes, the snow and cold confines them to their holes
for several days, especially when the weather is very rough. During
this time they consume the little store, which they have brought to
their nests: as soon therefore as the weather grows milder, they creep
out, and dig out part of the store which they have laid up in the
ground: of this they eat some on the spot, and carry the rest into
their nests on the trees. We frequently observed that in winter, at the
eve of a great frost, when there had been some temperate weather, the
squirrels, a day or two before the frost, ran about the woods in
greater numbers than common, partly in order to eat their fill, and
partly to store their nests with a new provision for the ensuing great
cold, during which they did not venture to come out, but stay snug in
their nests: therefore seeing them run in the woods in greater numbers
than ordinary, was a safe prognostic of an ensuing cold.

The hogs which are here droven into the woods, whilst there is yet no
snow in them, often do considerable damage to the poor squirrels, by
rooting up their store-holes, and robbing their winter provisions. Both
the Indians, and the European Americans, take great pains to find out
these store-holes, whether in trees or in the ground, as all the nuts
they contain are choice, and not only quite ripe, but likewise not
pierced by worms. The nuts and acorns which the Dormice, or Mus
Cricetus, Linn. store up in autumn, are all in the same condition. The
Swedes relate, that in the long winter, which happened here in the year
1741, there fell such a quantity of snow, that the squirrels could not
get to their store, and many of them were starved to death.

The damage which these animals do in the maize fields, I have already
described: they do the more harm, as they do not eat all the corn, but
only the inner and sweet part, and as it were take off the husks. In
spring towards the end of April, when the oaks were in full flower, I
once observed a number of squirrels on them, sometimes five, six, or
more in a tree, who bit off the flower stalks a little below the
flowers, and dropt them on the ground: whether they eat any thing off
them, or made use of them for some other purpose I know not: but the
ground was quite covered with oak flowers, to which part of the stalk
adhered. For this reason the oaks do not bear so much fruit by far, to
feed hogs and other animals, as they would otherwise do.

Of all the wild animals in this country, the squirrels are some of the
easiest to tame, especially when they are taken young for that purpose.
I have seen them tamed so far, that they would follow the boys into the
woods and run about every where, and when tired would sit on their
shoulders. Sometimes they only ran a little way into the wood, and then
returned home again to the little hole that had been fitted up for
them. When they eat, they sit almost upright, hold their food between
their forefeet and their tail bent upwards. When the tame ones got more
than they could eat at a time, they carried the remainder to their
habitations, and hid it amongst the wool which they lay upon. Such tame
squirrels shewed no fear of strangers, and would suffer themselves to
be touched by every body, without offering to bite. They sometimes
would leap upon stranger’s cloaths and lie still on them, in order to
sleep. In the farm houses where they were kept, they played with cats
and dogs: they likewise eat bread.

The wild grey squirrels likewise hold up their tails when sitting. As
soon as they perceive a man, they continually wag their tails and begin
to gnash with their teeth, and make a great noise, which they do not
readily give over. Those who go a shooting birds and other animals, are
therefore very angry at them, as this noise discovers them, and alarms
the game. Though a grey squirrel does not seem to be very shy, yet it
is very difficult to kill; for when it perceives a man, it climbs upon
a tree, and commonly chuses the highest about it. It then tries to hide
itself behind the trunk, so that the shooter may not see it, and though
he goes ever so fast round the tree, yet the squirrel changes its place
as quickly, if not quicker: if two boughs bend towards each other, the
squirrel lies in the middle of them, and presses itself so close, that
it is hardly visible. You may then shake the tree, throw sticks and
stones to the place where it lies, or shoot at it, yet it will never
stir. If three branches join, it takes refuge between them, and lies as
close to them as possible, and then it is sufficiently safe. Sometimes
it escapes on a tree where there are old nests of squirrels, or of
large birds: it slips into such, and cannot be got out, either by
shooting, throwing, or any thing else; for the grey squirrels seldom
leap from one tree to another, except extreme danger compels them. They
commonly run directly up the trees and down the same way, with their
head straight forward. Several of them which I shot in the woods, had
great numbers of fleas.

I have already mentioned that these squirrels are among the animals,
which at present are more plentiful than they formerly were, and that
the infinitely greater cultivation of maize, which is their favourite
food, is the cause of their multiplication. However it is peculiar,
that in some years a greater number of squirrels come down from the
higher countries into Pensylvania, and other English colonies. They
commonly come in autumn, and are then very busy in the woods gathering
nuts and acorns, which they carry into hollow trees or their
store-holes, in order to be sufficiently provided with food for winter.
They are so diligent in storing up of provisions, that though the nuts
have been extremely plentiful that year, yet it is difficult to get a
considerable quantity of them. The people here pretended from their own
experience to know, that when the squirrels came down in such numbers
from the higher parts of the country, the winter ensuing was uncommonly
rigorous and cold, and for that reason they always look upon their
coming down, as a sure sign of such a winter. Yet this does not always
prove true, as I experienced in the autumn of the year 1749: at that
time a great number of squirrels came down into the colonies, yet the
winter was very mild and no colder than common. But it appeared that
their migration was occasioned by the scarcity of nuts and acorns,
which happened that year in the higher parts of the country, and
obliged them to come hither for their food. Therefore they generally
return the next year to the place from which they came.

Some people reckon squirrel flesh a great dainty, but the generality
make no account of it. The skin is good for little, yet small straps
are sometimes made of it, as it is very tough: others use it as a furr
lining, for want of a better. Ladies shoes are likewise sometimes made
of it.

The Rattle snake often devours the squirrels, notwithstanding all their
agility. This unwieldy creature, is said to catch so agile an one,
merely by fascination. I have never had an opportunity of seeing how it
is done: but so many credible people assured me of the truth of the
fact, and asserted that they were present, and paid peculiar attention
to it, that I am almost forced to believe their unanimous accounts. The
fascination is effected in the following manner: the snake lies at the
bottom of the tree upon which the squirrel sits; its eyes are fixed
upon the little animal, and from that moment it cannot escape; it
begins a doleful outcry, which is so well known, that a person passing
by, on hearing it, immediately knows that it is charmed by a snake. The
squirrel runs up the tree a little way, comes downwards again, then
goes up, and now comes lower again. On that occasion it has been
observed, that the squirrel always goes down more than it goes up. The
snake still continues at the root of the tree, with its eyes fixed on
the squirrel, with which its attention is so entirely taken up, that a
person accidentally approaching, may make a considerable noise, without
the snake’s so much as turning about. The squirrel as before-mentioned
comes always lower, and at last leaps down to the snake, whose mouth is
already wide open for its reception. The poor little animal then with a
piteous cry runs into the snake’s jaws, and is swallowed at once, if it
be not too big; but if its size will not allow it to be swallowed at
once, the snake licks it several times with its tongue, and smoothens
it, and by that means makes it fit for swallowing. Every thing else
remarkable at this enchantment, I have described in a treatise inserted
in the Memoirs of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, in the Volume
for the year 1753, I therefore am not so circumstantial here. The same
power of enchanting is ascribed to that kind of snake, which is
commonly called the black snake in America, and it is said to catch and
devour squirrels in the same manner as the former. [49]

But these little animals do considerable damage to the maize, not only
whilst it is upon the stalk, as I have before observed, but even when
it is brought home into the barns: for if they can come at it without
any obstacle, they can in a few nights bring a whole bushel away into
their lurking holes. The government in most of the North American
colonies, has therefore been obliged to offer a certain premium, to be
paid out of the common treasury, for the head of a squirrel. It seems
inconceivable what a sum of money has been paid for grey and black
squirrel’s heads, in the province of Pensylvania only, from the first
of January 1749, to the first of January 1750; for when the deputies
from the several districts of the province met, in order to deliberate
upon the affairs of the province, each of them complained that their
treasuries were exhausted by paying so much for squirrels: for at that
time the law had appointed a reward of three-pence for each squirrel’s
head. So far extended the vengeance taken upon these little creatures,
i.e. upon the grey and black squirrels. It was found, by calling up
accounts, that in that one year eight thousand pounds of Pensylvania
currency, had been expended in paying these rewards: this I was assured
of by a man who had looked over the accounts himself.

Many people, especially young men, left all other employment, and went
into the woods to shoot squirrels: but the government having
experienced how much three-pence per head took out of the treasury,
settled half that sum upon each squirrel’s head.

Flying Squirrels are a peculiar kind, which seem to be the same with
those which inhabit Finland, and which Dr. Linnæus in his Fauna
Svecica, No. 38. calls Sciurus volans. The American flying squirrel at
the utmost is only a variety of that which we have in Finland. Catesby
in his Natural History of Carolina, Vol. 2, p. 76, 77, has described
it, and tab. 76, 77, drawn it after life. He likewise calls it Sciurus
volans. Edwards in his Natural History of Birds represents it, t. 191.
They are met with in the woods, but not very frequently. They are
scarce ever seen in the day time, unless they are forced out by men who
have discovered their nests: for they sleep in the day time, but as
soon as it grows dark, they come out and run about almost all night.
They live in hollow trees, and by cutting one down, seven or more
flying squirrels are frequently found in it. By the additional skin
with which Providence has provided them on both sides, they can fly
from one tree to another. They expand their skins like wings, and
contract them again as soon as they can get hold of the opposite tree.
Some people say that they fly in a horizontal line; but others asserted
that they first went a little downwards, and then rose up again, when
they approached the tree to which they would fly: they cannot fly
further than four or five fathoms. Among all the squirrels in this
country, these are the most easily tamed. The boys carry them to
school, or wherever they go, without their ever attempting to escape:
if even they put their squirrel aside, it leaps upon them again
immediately, creeps either into their bosom, or their sleeve, or any
fold of the clothes, and lies down to sleep: its food is the same with
that of the grey squirrel.

There is a small species of squirrels abounding in the woods, which the
English call ground Squirrels. Catesby has described and drawn them
from life, in the 2d. Vol. of his Natural History of Carolina, p. 75,
tab. 75, and Edwards in his Natural History of Birds, t. 181. [50] He
and Dr. Linnæus call it Sciurus striatus, or the streaked Squirrel.
These do not properly live in trees, as others of this genus, but dig
holes in the ground (much in the same manner as rabbets) in which they
live, and whither they take refuge when they perceive any danger. Their
holes go deep, and commonly further inwards divide into many branches.
They are also cunning enough to make sometimes an opening or hole to
the surface of the ground from one of these branches. The advantage
they have from hence, is that when they stroll about for food, and the
hole is stopt up through which they went out, they may not expose
themselves to be caught, but presently find the other hole, into which
they may retreat: but in autumn, when the leaves fall from the trees,
or sometime after, it is diversion to see the consternation they are
sometimes in when pursued; for their holes being easily covered with
the great fall of leaves, or by the wind, they have a great deal to do,
to find them on a sudden: they then run backwards and forwards, as if
they had lost their way: they seem to know the places where they have
made their subterraneous walks, but cannot conceive where the entrances
are. If they be then pursued, and one claps his hands, they know no
other refuge than that of climbing upon a tree; for it is to be
observed that these squirrels always live under ground, and never climb
upon trees unless pursued, and unable in the hurry to find their holes.
This kind of squirrels is much more numerous in Pensylvania, than in
any other province of North America through which I have travelled. Its
length is commonly six inches, without the curved tail; and it is very
narrow. The skin is ferruginous, or of a reddish brown, and marked with
five black streaks, one of which runs along the back, and two on each
side. Their food consists of all sorts of corn, as rye, barley, wheat,
maize, and of acorns, nuts, &amp;c. They gather their winter provisions in
autumn, like the common grey squirrels, and keep them in their holes
under ground. If they get into a granary, they do as much mischief as
mice and rats. It has often been observed that if, after eating rye,
they come to some wheat, they throw up the former, which they do not
like so well as the wheat, in order to fill their belly with the
latter. When the maize is reaped in the fields, they are very busy in
biting off the ears, and filling the pouches in their mouth with corn,
so that their cheeks are quite blown up. With this booty they hasten
into the holes which they have made in the ground.

As a Swede was making a mill-dyke, pretty late in autumn, he employed
for that purpose the soil of a neighbouring hill, and met with a hole
on a subterraneous walk belonging to these squirrels; he followed it
for some time, and discovered a walk on one side like a branch, parting
from the chief stem: it was near two feet long, and at its end was a
quantity of choice acorns of the white oak, which the little careful
animal had stored up for winter. Soon after he found another walk on
the side like the former, but containing a fine store of maize: the
next had hiccory nuts, and the last and most hidden one contained some
excellent chesnuts, which might have filled two hats.

In winter these squirrels are seldom seen, for during that season they
live in their subterraneous holes upon the provisions, which they have
stored up there. However on a very fine and clear day they sometimes
come out. They frequently dig through the ground, into cellars in which
the country people lay up their apples, which they partly eat, and
partly spoil, so that the master has little or nothing left. They
handle the maize stores full as roughly as the apples. But the cats are
their great enemies, who devour them and bring them home to their young
ones: their flesh is not eaten by men, and their skin is not made use
of.

Of all the squirrels in the country, these are the most difficult to be
tamed; for, though they be caught very young, yet it is dangerous to
touch them with naked hands, as they bite very sharp when one is not
aware of them. Many boys, who had lost a deal of time in trying to tame
these squirrels, owned that they knew of no art to make them quite
tame; at least they are never so far tamed as the other species. In
order to do any thing towards taming them they must be caught when they
are very small. Some people kept them in that state in a cage, because
they looked very pretty.

I shall take an other opportunity of speaking of the black and
ferruginous squirrels, which likewise inhabit this country.

November the 15th. In the morning I returned to Philadelphia. Mr. Cock
told me to day, and on some other occasions afterwards, an accident
which happened to him, and which seemed greatly to confirm a peculiar
sign of an imminent hurricane. He sailed to the West Indies in a small
yacht, and had an old man on board, who had for a considerable time
sailed in this sea. The old man sounding the depth, called to the mate
to tell Mr. Cock to launch the boats immediately, and to put a
sufficient number of men into them, in order to tow the yacht during
the calm, that they might reach the island before them, as soon as
possible, as within twenty-four hours there would be a strong
hurricane. Mr. Cock asked him what reasons he had to think so, the old
man replied, that on sounding, he saw the lead in the water at a
distance of many fathoms more than he had seen it before; that
therefore the water was become clear all of a sudden, which he looked
upon as a certain sign of an impending hurricane in the sea. Mr. Cock
likewise saw the excessive clearness of the water. He therefore gave
immediate orders for launching the boat, and towing the yacht, so that
they arrived before night in a safe harbour. But before they had quite
reached it the waves began to rise more and more, and the water was as
it were boiling, though no wind was perceptible. In the ensuing night
the hurricane came on, and raged with such violence, that not only many
ships were lost, and the roofs were torn off from the houses, but even
Mr. Cock’s yacht and other ships, though they were in safe harbours,
were by the wind, and the violence of the sea, washed so far on shore,
that several weeks elapsed, before they could be got off.

An old Dutch skipper said, that he had once caught a dogfish in the bay
of New York, which being cut open, had a quantity of eels in his
stomach.

November the 18th. Mr. Bartram shewed me an earthen pot, which had been
found in a place, where the Indians formerly lived. He, who first dug
it out, kept grease and fat in it to smear his shoes, boots and all
forts of leather with: Mr. Bartram bought the pot of that man; it was
yet entire and not damaged: I could perceive no glaze or colour upon
it, but on the outside it was very much ornamented and upon the whole
well made. Mr. Bartram shewed me several pieces of broken earthen
vessels which the Indians formerly made use of. It plainly appeared in
all these that they were not made of mere clay; but that different
materials had been mixed with it, according to the nature of the places
where they were made. Those Indians, for example, who lived near the
sea shore, pounded the shells of snails and muscles, and mixed them
with the clay. Others who lived further up in the country, where
mountain crystals could be found, pounded them and mixed them with
their clay; but how they proceeded in making the vessels, is entirely
unknown: it was plain, that they did not burn them much, for they were
so soft that they might be cut in pieces with a knife: the workmanship
however seems to have been very good; for at present they find whole
vessels or pieces in the ground, which are not damaged at all, though
they have lain in the ground above a century. Before the Europeans
settled in North America, the Indians had no other vessels to boil
their meat in, than these earthen pots of their own making: but since
their arrival, they have always bought pots, kettles, and other
necessary vessels of the Europeans, and take no longer the pains of
making some, by which means this art is entirely lost among them. Such
vessels of their own construction are therefore a great rarity even
among the Indians. I have seen such old pots and pieces of them,
consisting of a kind of Serpentine stone, or Linnæus’s Talcum, Syst.
nat. 3. p. 52.

Mr. Bartram likewise shewed me little pieces of a black slate, which is
plentifully found in some parts of the river Skullkill. There are
pieces to be found, which are four feet and above square: the colour
and configuration is the same as in the Table slate (Schistus
tabularis, Linn.) Syst. nat. 3. p. 37. except that this is a little
thicker. The inhabitants of the country thereabouts (in the
neighbourhood of the Skullkill) cover their roofs with it; Mr. Bartram
assured me, that he had seen a whole roof composed of four such slates.
The rays of the sun, heat, cold, and rain do not act upon the stone.

Mr. Bartram further related, that in several parts of the country,
caves or holes were to be met with, going deep into the mountains: he
had been in several of them and had often found a number of
Stalactites, Linnæus’s Stalactites stillatitius, Syst. nat. 3. p. 183.
of different dimensions at the top; they differed in colour, but the
greatest curiosity was, that in some of the caves Mr. Bartram had found
Stalactites, whose outward side was as it were wreathed from top to
bottom; he had sent some pieces of it to London, and had none at
present.

November the 20th. This morning I set out in company of a friend, on a
journey to Raccoon in New Jersey, where many Swedes live, who have
their own church. We had three miles to go before we came to the ferry
which was to bring us over the Delaware. The country here was very low
in some places: the plains on the banks of the river, were overflowed
at every high water or flowing of the tide, and at the ebbing they were
left dry again. However the inhabitants of the country hereabouts, made
use of this plain: for that purpose they had in several places thrown
up walls or dykes of earth towards the river, to prevent its
overflowing the plains, which they made use of as meadows. On them the
Water-beeches (Platanus occidentalis, Linn.) were planted in great
numbers on both sides the road, quite close together: these in summer
afford a pleasant shade, on account of the abundance and size of their
leaves, and make the road extremely delightful, as it resembles a fine
shady walk. The Delaware has nearly the same breadth here, which it has
near Philadelphia. Near the place where the ferry is to be met with,
several pretty houses were built on both sides, where travellers might
get all kinds of refreshment. On our journey from Pensylvania to New
Jersey, we were brought over the Delaware in a ferry belonging to, and
kept in repair by the Pensylvania-men; but on our return we were
obliged to take the ferry belonging to the New Jersey side. As soon as
we had crossed the river, we were in a different province, for the
Delaware makes the division between Pensylvania and New Jersey, so that
every thing to the west of it belongs to the former, and all to the
east, to the latter province. Both these provinces have in most things
different laws, and their peculiar coin.

We now pursued our journey further, and soon observed that the country
on this side appeared very different from that on the other; for in
Pensylvania the ground consists of more clay and black mould, and is
very fertile; but in New Jersey it is more sandy and very poor, so that
the horses went very deep in sand in several parts of the road. Near
the place where we were brought over, and a little way along the shore
was a thick firwood: the trees were not very high, but in their
greatest vigour; between them appeared now and then a low bush of oak.
But after travelling about three English miles, the firwood ended, and
we saw no more trees of this kind till we came to the church in
Raccoon. In all the parts of Pensylvania where I have been, I have
found few firwoods; on the other hand, they are abundant in New Jersey,
and especially in the lower part of that province. We afterwards found
all the day long no other trees, than such as have deciduous leaves;
most of these were oaks of different sorts, and of considerable height,
but they stood every where far enough asunder, to admit a chaise to
pass through the wood without any inconvenience, there being seldom any
shrubs or underwood between the trees, to obstruct the way. The leaves
were all fallen, and covered the ground more than a hand’s breadth:
this had an appearance of encreasing the upper black soil greatly. In
several places flowed a small rivulet. The country was commonly plain,
but sometimes formed a few hills with an easy declivity, though no high
mountains appeared, and in a few places we found some small stones not
bigger than a fist. Single farm houses were scattered in the country,
and in one place only was a small village: the country was yet more
covered with forests than cultivated, and we were for the greatest part
always in a wood.

This day and the next we passed several Kills, or small rivulets which
flowed out of the country into the Delaware with no great descent nor
rapidity. When the tide came up in the Delaware, it likewise rose in
some of these rivulets a good way; formerly they must have spread to a
considerable breadth by the flowing of the tide, but at present there
were meadows on their banks, formed, by throwing up strong dykes as
close as possible to the water, to keep it from overflowing. Such dykes
were made along all rivers here to confine their water; therefore when
the tide was highest, the water in the rivers was much higher than the
meadows: in the dykes were gates through which the water can be drawn
from, or led into the meadows; they were sometimes placed on the
outward side of the wall, so that the water in the meadows forced it
open, but the river water shut it.

In the evening we came into the house of a Swede called Peter Rambo,
and we staid the night at his house.

The pines which we had seen to day, and which I have mentioned before,
were of that kind which has double leaves and oblong cones covered with
aculeated scales. The English to distinguish it call it the Jersey
Pine: commonly there were only two spines or leaves in one fascicle, as
in our common Swedish pines, but sometimes three; the cones had long
spines, so that they were difficult to be touched. These pines look at
a distance wholly like the Swedish ones, so that if the cones were not
regarded, they might easily be taken for the same species. Of these
pines they make a great quantity of tar, of which I shall speak in the
sequel; but as most of them are but small, they are good for nothing
else; for if they be employed as posts, or poles in the ground, they
are in a short time rendered useless by rotting: as soon as they are
cut down the worms are very greedy of them; they soon eat through the
wood, and only a few weeks after it is cut down; however it is made use
of as fuel where no other wood is to be got, in several places they
make charcoal of it, as I intend to mention in the sequel. There is
another thing which deserves notice, in regard to these trees, and
which several people, besides myself, have experienced. In the great
heat of the summer, the cattle like to stand in the shade of these
trees, preferably to that of the oak, hiccory, walnut, water-beech and
other trees of this kind, whose foliage is very thick; and when the
cattle find the latter with the former, they always choose to stand
under the firs and pines, though the other trees with annually
deciduous leaves could afford a better shade: and if there be but a
single pine in a wood, as many cattle from the herd as can stand under
it, throng to it. Some people would infer from hence, that the resinous
exhalations of these trees, were beneficial to the cattle, and which
made them more inclined to be near firs and pines, than any other
trees.

The Spoon tree, which never grows to a great height, we saw this day in
several places. The Swedes here have called it thus, because the
Indians who formerly lived in these provinces, used to make their
spoons and trowels of the wood of this tree. In my cabinet of natural
curiosities, I have a spoon made of this wood by an Indian, who has
killed many stags and other animals on the very spot where Philadelphia
afterwards was built; for in his time that spot was yet covered with
trees and shrubs. The English call this tree a Laurel, because its
leaves resemble those of the Laurocerasus. Dr. Linnæus, conformable to
the peculiar friendship and goodness which he has always honoured me
with, has been pleased to call this tree, Kalmia foliis ovatis,
corymbis terminalibus, or Kalmia latifolia. It succeeds best on the
side of hills, especially on the north side, where a brook passes by;
therefore on meeting with some steep places (on hills) towards a brook,
or with a steep side of a hill towards a marsh, you are sure to find
the Kalmia. But it frequently stands mixed among beech trees. The
higher the Kalmias stand on the north side of a mountain, the less they
grow: I have seen them not only in Pensylvania and New Jersey, but even
in New York, but there they are more scarce: I never found them beyond
the forty-second deg. of north lat. though I took ever so great care to
look for them: they have the quality of preserving their fine green
leaves throughout winter, so that when all other trees have lost their
ornaments, and stand quite naked, these chear the woods with their
green foliage. About the month of May they begin to flower in these
parts, and then their beauty rivals that of most of the known trees in
nature: the flowers are innumerable, and sit in great bunches. Before
they open, they have a fine red colour, but as they are expanded, the
sun bleaches them, so that some are quite white; many preserve the
colour of roses. Their shape is singular, for they resemble a crater of
the ancients: their scent however is none of the most agreeable. In
some places it was customary to adorn the churches on christmas day or
new-years day with the fine branches of this tree, which are then thick
covered with leaves.

But these trees are known for another remarkable quality; their leaves
are poison to some animals, and food for others: experience has taught
the people that when sheep eat of these leaves, they either die
immediately, or fall very sick, and recover with great difficulty. The
young and more tender sheep are killed by a small portion, but the
elder ones can bear a stronger dose. Yet this food will likewise prove
mortal to them, if they take too much of it: the same noxious effect it
shews in regard to calves which eat too much of the leaves: they either
die, or do not recover easily. I can remember, that in the autumn of
the year 1748, some calves eat of the leaves, but fell very sick,
swelled, foamed at the mouth, and could hardly stand, however they were
cured by giving them gunpowder and other medicines: the sheep are most
exposed to be tempted by these leaves in winter; for after having been
kept in stables, for some months they are greedy of all greens
especially if the snow still lies upon the fields, and therefore the
green but poisonous leaves of the Kalmia, are to them very tempting.
Horses, oxen and cows which have eaten them, have likewise been very
ill after the meal, and though none of them ever died of eating these
leaves, yet most people believed, that if they took too great a portion
of them, death would certainly be the result. For it has been observed
that when these animals only eat small quantities, yet they suffer
great pains. On the other hand the leaves of the Kalmia are the food of
stags, when the snow covers the ground, and hides all other provisions
from them. Therefore, if they be shot in winter, their bowels are found
filled with these leaves; and it is very extraordinary, that if those
bowels are given to dogs, they become quite stupid and as it were
drunk, and often fall so sick, that they seem to be at the point of
death, but the people, who have eaten the venison, have not felt the
least indisposition. The leaves of the Kalmia are likewise the winter
food of those birds, which the Swedes in North America call Hazel-hens,
and which stay here all winter, for when they are killed, their crop is
found quite filled with them.

The wood of the Kalmia is very hard, and some people on that account,
make the axis of their pullies of it. Weavers shuttles are chiefly made
of it, and the weavers are of opinion, that no wood in this country is
better for this purpose, for it is compact, may be made very smooth,
and does not easily crack, or burst. The joiners and turners here,
employ it in making all kinds of work, which requires the best wood;
they chiefly use the root because it is quite yellow; the wood has a
very suitable hardness and fineness, and from the center, spread as it
were small rays, which are at some distance from each other. When the
leaves of the Kalmia are thrown into the fire, they make a crackling
like salt. The chimney sweepers make brooms in winter of the branches
with the leaves on them, since they cannot get others in that season.
In the summer of the year 1750, a certain kind of worms, devoured the
leaves of almost all the trees in Pensylvania; yet they did not venture
to attack the leaves of the Kalmia. Some people asserted, that when a
fire happened in the woods, it never went further, as soon as it came
to the Kalmias, or Spoon trees.

November the 21st. The Swedes and all the other inhabitants of the
country plant great quantities of maize, both for themselves and for
their cattle. It was asserted that it is the best food for hogs,
because it makes them very fat, and gives their flesh an agreeable
flavour, preferable to all other meat. I have given in two
dissertations upon this kind of corn to the Swedish Royal Academy of
Sciences, which stand in their Memoirs, one in the Volume for the year
1751, in the last quarter, and the other in the first quarter of the
Volume for the year 1752, and thither I refer my readers.

The wheels of the carts which are here made use of, are composed of two
different kinds of wood. The felloes were made of what is called the
Spanish oak, and the spokes of the white oak.

The Sassafras tree grows every where in this place. I have already
observed several particulars in regard to it, and intend to add a few
more here. On throwing some of the wood into the fire, it causes a
crackling as salt does. The wood is made use of for posts belonging to
the enclosures, for it is said to last a long time in the ground: but
it is likewise said, that there is hardly any kind of wood, which is
more attacked by worms than this, when it is exposed to the air without
cover, and that in a short time it is quite worm-eaten through and
through. The Swedes related, that the Indians who formerly inhabited
these parts, made bowls of it. On cutting some part of the sassafras
tree, or its shoots, and holding it to the nose, it has a strong but
pleasant smell. Some people peel the root, and boil the peel with the
beer which they are brewing, because they believe it wholesome for the
same reason. The peel is put into brandy, either whilst it is
distilling, or after it is made.

An old Swede remembered that his mother cured many people of the
dropsy, by a decoction of the root of sassafras in water drank every
morning: but she used, at the same time to cup the patient on the feet.
The old man assured me, he had often seen people cured by this means,
who had been brought to his mother wrapped up in sheets.

When a part of a wood is destined for cultivation, the sassafras trees
are commonly left upon it, because they have a very thick foliage, and
afford a cool shade to the cattle, during the great heats. Several of
the Swedes, wash and scour the vessels in which they intend to keep
cyder, beer or brandy, with water in which the sassafras root or its
peel has been boiled; which they think renders all those liquors more
wholesome. Some people get their bed-posts made of sassafras wood, in
order to expel the bugs; for its strong scent it is said prevents those
vermin from settling in them. For two or three years together this has
the desired effect; or about as long as the wood keeps its strong
aromatic smell; but after that time it has been observed to lose it
effect. A joiner shewed me a bed, which he had made for himself, the
posts of which were of sassafras wood, but as it was ten or twelve
years old, there were so many bugs in it, that it seemed likely, they
would not let him sleep peaceably. Some Englishmen related, that some
years ago it had been customary in London, to drink a kind of tea of
the flowers of sassafras, because it was looked upon as very salutary;
but upon recollecting that the same potion was much used against the
venereal disease, it was soon left off, lest those that used it, should
be looked upon as infected with that disease. In Pensylvania some
people put chips of sassafras into their chests, where they keep all
sorts of woollen stuffs, in order to expel the moths (or Larvæ, or
caterpillars of moths or tinies) which commonly settle in them in
summer. The root keeps its smell for a long while: I have seen one
which had lain five or six years in the drawer of a table, and still
preserved the strength of its scent.

A Swede named Rambo, related that the Indians formerly dyed all sorts
of leather red with the bark of the chesnut oak.

Some old people remembered that in the year 1697, there had been so
rigorous a winter, that the ice in the river Delaware was two feet
thick.

November the 22d. Aoke Helm was one of the most considerable Swedes in
this place, and his father came over into this country along with the
Swedish governor Prince; he was upwards of seventy years of age. This
old man told us, that in his youth there was grass in the woods, which
grew very close, and was every where two feet high; but, that it was so
much lessened at present, that the cattle hardly find food enough, and
that therefore four cows now give no more milk than one at that time;
but the causes of this alteration are easy to find. In the younger
years of old Helm, the country was little inhabited, and hardly the
tenth part of the cattle kept which is at present; a cow had therefore
as much food at that time, as ten now have. Further, most kinds of
grass here are annual, and do not for several years together shoot up
from the same root, as our Swedish grasses: they must sow themselves
every year, because the last year’s plant dies away every autumn. The
great numbers of cattle hinder this sowing, as the grass is eaten
before it can produce flowers and fruit. We need not therefore wonder
that the grass is so thin on fields, hills, and pastures in these
provinces. This is likewise the reason why travellers in New Jersey,
Pensylvania, and Maryland, find many difficulties, especially in
winter, to get forwards with their own horses, for the grass in these
provinces is not very abundant, because the cattle eat it before it can
bring seeds: but more to the north, as in Canada, are a sufficient
quantity of perennial grasses; so wisely has the Creator regulated
every thing. The cold parts of the earth, naturally bring forth a more
durable grass, because the inhabitants want more hay to feed their
cattle with, on account of the length of the winter. The southern
provinces again have less perennial grass, as the cattle may be in the
fields all the winter. However careful œconomists have got seeds of
perennial grasses from England, and other European states, and sowed it
in their meadows, where they seem to thrive exceedingly well.

The Persimon (Diospyros Virginiana) was pretty common here: I have
already mentioned it before, but I intend now to add some more
particulars. Some of its fruits began to ripen and to become fit for
eating about this time, for they always ripen very late in autumn, and
then the people eat them like other fruit: they are very sweet and
glutinous, yet have a little astringency; I frequently used to eat a
great quantity of them, without feeling the least inconvenience. From
the persimon several Englishmen and Swedes brew a very palatable liquor
in the following manner. As soon as the fruit is ripe, a sufficient
quantity is gathered, which is very easy, as each tree is well stocked
with them. These persimon apples are put into a dough of wheat or other
flour, formed into cakes, and put into an oven, in which they continue
till they are quite baked, and sufficiently dry, when they are taken
out again: then, in order to brew the liquor, a pot full of water is
put on the fire and some of the cakes are put in: these become soft by
degrees as the water grows warm, and crumble in pieces at last; the pot
is then taken from the fire, and the water in it well stirred about,
that the cakes may mix with it: this is then poured into another
vessel, and they continue to steep and break as many cakes as are
necessary for a brewing: the malt is then infused, and they proceed as
usual with the brewing. Beer thus prepared is reckoned much preferable
to other beer. They likewise make brandy of this fruit in the following
manner: having collected a sufficient quantity of persimons in autumn,
they are altogether put into a vessel, where they lie for a week till
they are quite soft. Then they pour water on them, and in that state
they are left to ferment of themselves, without promoting the
fermentation by any addition. The brandy is then made in the common
way, and is said to be very good, especially if grapes (in particular
of the sweet sort) which are wild in the woods, be mixed with the
persimon fruit. Some persimons are ripe at the end of September, but
most of them later, and some not before November and December, when the
cold first overcomes their acrimony. The wood of this tree is very good
for joiner’s instruments, such as planes, handles to chisels, &amp;c. but
if after being cut down, it lies exposed to sunshine and rain, it is
the first wood which rots, and in a year’s time there is nothing left
but what is useless. When the persimon trees get once into a field,
they are not easily got out of it again, as they spread so much. I was
told, that if you cut off a branch and put it into the ground, it
strikes root, but in very strong winters, these trees often die by
frost, and they, together with the peach trees, bear cold the least of
any.

November the 23d. Several kinds of gourds and melons are cultivated
here: they have partly been originally cultivated by the Indians, and
partly brought over by Europeans. Of the gourds there was a kind which
were crooked at the end, and oblong in general, and therefore they were
called crooked necks (Crocknacks;) they keep almost all winter. There
is yet another species of gourds which have the same quality: others
again are cut in pieces or slips, drawn upon thread and dried; they
keep all the year long, and are then boiled or stewed. All sorts of
gourds are prepared for eating in different manners, as is likewise
customary in Sweden. Many farmers have a whole field of gourds.

Squashes are a kind of gourds, which the Europeans got from the
Indians, and I have already mentioned them before. They are eaten
boiled, either with flesh or by themselves. In the first case, they are
put on the edge of the dish round the meat; they require little care,
for into whatever ground they are sown, they grow in it and succeed
well. If the seed is put into the fields in autumn, it brings squashes
next spring, though during winter it has suffered from frost, snow and
wet.

The Calabashes are likewise gourds, which are planted in quantities by
the Swedes and other inhabitants, but they are not fit for eating, and
are made use of for making all sorts of vessels; they are more tender
than the squashes, for they do not always ripen here, and only when the
weather is very warm. In order to make vessels of them, they are first
dried well: the seeds, together with the pulpy and spungy matter in
which they lie, are afterwards taken out and thrown away. The shells
are scraped very clean within, and then great spoons or ladles,
funnels, bowls, dishes and the like may be made of them; they are
particularly fit for keeping seeds of plants in, which are to be sent
over sea, for they keep their power of vegetating much longer, if they
be put in calabashes, than by any other means. Some people scrape the
outside of the calabashes before they are opened, dry them afterwards
and then clean them within; this makes them as hard as bones: they are
sometimes washed, so that they always keep their white colour.

Most of the farmers in this country, sow Buck-wheat, in the middle of
July; it must not be sown later, for in that case the frost ruins it,
but if it be sown before July, it flowers all the summer long, but the
flowers drop, and no seed is generated. Some people, plough the ground
twice where they intend to sow buck-wheat; others plough it only once,
about two weeks before they sow it. As soon as it is sown the field is
harrowed. It has been found by experience, that in a wet year
buck-wheat is most likely to succeed: it stands on the fields till the
frost comes on. When the crop is favourable, they get twenty, thirty
and even forty bushels from one. The Swedish churchwarden Ragnilson, in
whose house we were at this time, had got such a crop: they make
buck-wheat cakes and pudding. The cakes are commonly made in the
morning, and are baked in a frying pan, or on a stone: are buttered and
then eaten with tea or coffee, instead of toasted bread with butter, or
toast, which the English commonly eat at breakfast. The buck-wheat
cakes are very good, and are likewise usual at Philadelphia and in
other English colonies, especially in winter. Buck-wheat is an
excellent food for fowls; they eat it greedily, and lay more eggs, than
they do with other food: hogs are likewise fattened with it. Buck-wheat
straw is of no use; it is therefore left upon the field, in the places
where it has been thrashed, or it is scattered in the orchards, in
order to serve as a manure by putrifying. Neither cattle nor any other
animal will eat of it, except in the greatest necessity, when the snow
covers the ground and nothing else is to be met with. But though
buck-wheat is so common in the English colonies, yet the French had no
right notion of it in Canada, and it was never cultivated among them.

Towards night we found some Glow Worms in the wood, their body was
linear, consisting of eleven articulations, a little pointed before and
behind; the length from head to tail was five and a half geometrical
lines; the colour was brown and the articulations joined in the same
manner as in the onisci or woodlice. The antennæ or feel horns were
short and filiform, or thread-shaped; and the feet were fastened to the
foremost articulations of the body: when the insect creeps, its
hindmost articulations are dragged on the ground, and help its motion.
The extremity of the tail contain a matter which shines in the dark,
with a green light: the insect could draw it in, so that it was not
visible. It had rained considerably all day, yet they crept in great
numbers among the bushes, so that the ground seemed as it were sown
with stars. I shall in the sequel have occasion to mention another kind
of insects or flies which shine in the dark, when flying in the air.

November the 24th. Holly, or Ilex Aquifolium, grows in wet places,
scattered in the forest, and belongs to the rare trees; its leaves are
green both in summer and in winter. The Swedes dry its leaves, bruise
them in a mortar, boil them in small beer, and take them against the
pleurisy.

Red is dyed with brasil wood, and likewise with a kind of moss, which
grows on the trees here: blue is dyed with Indigo, but to get a black
colour, the leaves of the common field sorrel (Rumex Acetosella) are
boiled with the stuff to be dyed, which is then dried, and boiled again
with log-wood and copperas: the black colour thus produced, is said to
be very durable. The people spin and weave a great part of their every
day’s apparel, and dye them in their houses. Flax is cultivated by many
people, and succeeds very well, but the use of hemp is not very common.

Rye, wheat, and buck-wheat are cut with the sickle, but oats are mown
with a scythe. The sickles which are here made use of are long and
narrow, and their sharp edges have close teeth on the inner side. The
field lies fallow during a year, and in that time the cattle may graze
on it.

All the inhabitants of this place from the highest to the lowest, have
each their orchard, which is greater or less according to their wealth.
The trees in it are chiefly peach trees, apple trees and cherry trees:
compare with this what I have already said upon this subject before.

A little before noon, we left this place and continued our journey,
past the Swedish church in Raccoon, to Peils groves. The country, on
the sides of this road, is very sandy in many places and pretty near
level. Here and there appear single farms, yet they are very scarce,
and large extensive pieces of ground are still covered with forests,
which chiefly consist of several species of oak and hiccory. However we
could go with ease through these woods, as there are few bushes (or
under-wood) and stones to be met with. It was not only easy to ride in
every part of the wood on horseback, but even in most places there was
sufficient room for a small coach or a cart. Sometimes a few lying
trees which had been thrown on the ground by a hurricane, or had fallen
down through great age, caused some hindrance.

November the 25th. During my stay at Raccoon, at this time and all the
ensuing winter, I endeavoured to get the most information from the old
Swedes relating to the increase of land, and the decrease of water in
these parts; I shall therefore insert the answers here, which I have
received to my questions. They are as I got them, and I shall only
throw in a few remarks which may serve to explain things: the reader
therefore is left at liberty to draw his own inferences and
conclusions.

One of the Swedes, called King, who was above fifty years of age, was
convinced, that about this time the little lakes, brooks, springs and
rivers had much less water, than they had when he was a boy. He could
mention several lakes on which the people went in large boats in his
youth, and had sufficient water even in the hottest summers; but now,
they were either entirely dried up, or for the greatest part; and in
the latter case, all the water was lost in summer. He had himself seen
the fish dying in them, and he was apt to believe that at this time it
did not rain so much in summer, as it did when he was young. One of his
relations, who lived about eight miles from the river Delaware, on a
hill near a rivulet, had got a well, dug in his court yard: at the
depth of forty feet, they found a quantity of shells of oysters and
muscles, and likewise a great quantity of reed, and pieces of broken
branches. I asked, to what causes they ascribed what they had
discovered? and I was answered, that some people believed these things
had lain there ever since the deluge, and others, that the ground
increased.

Peter Rambo, a man who was near sixty years of age, assured me that in
several places at Raccoon, where wells had been dug, or any other work
carried deep into the ground, he had seen great quantities of muscle
shells and other marine animals. On digging wells, the people have
sometimes met with logs of wood at the depth of twenty feet, some of
which were putrified, and others as it were burnt. They once found a
great spoon in the ground, at this depth. Query, Is it not probable,
that the burnt wood which has been thus dug up, was only blackened by a
subterraneous mineral vapour? People however have concluded from this,
that America has had inhabitants before the deluge. This man (Peter
Rambo) further told me, that bricks had been found deep in the ground;
but may not the brick coloured clay (of which the ground here chiefly
consists, and which is a mixture of clay and sand) in a hard state have
had the appearance of bricks? I have seen such hardened clay, which at
first sight is easily mistaken for brick. He likewise asserted, that
the water in rivers was still as high as it used to be, as far back as
memory could reach; but little lakes, ponds, and waters in marshes are
visibly decreased, and many of them dried up.

Maons Keen, a Swede above seventy years old, asserted, that on digging
a well he had seen at the depth of forty feet, a great piece of chesnut
wood, together with roots and stalks of reed, and a clayey earth like
that which commonly covers the shores of salt water bays and coves.
This clay had a similar smell and a saline taste. Maons Keen and
several other people inferred from hence, that the whole country where
Raccoon and Penn’s neck are situated, was anciently quite overflowed by
the sea. They likewise knew, that at a great depth in the ground, such
a trowel as the Indians make use of, had been found.

Sven Lock, and William Cobb, both above fifty years of age agreed, that
in many places hereabouts, where wells had been dug, they had seen a
great quantity of reed, mostly rotten, at the depth of twenty or thirty
feet and upwards.

As Cobb made a well for himself, the workmen after digging twenty feet
deep, came upon so thick a branch, that they could not get forwards,
till it was cut in two places; the wood was still very hard. It is very
common to find near the surface of the earth, quantities of all sorts
of leaves not quite putrified. On making a dyke some years ago, along
the river on which the church at Raccoon stands; and for that purpose
cutting through a bank, it was found quite full of oyster shells,
though this place is above a hundred and twenty English miles from the
nearest sea shore. These men, and all the inhabitants of Raccoon,
concluded from this circumstance (of their own accord, and without
being led to the thought) that this tract of land was a part of the sea
many centuries ago. They likewise asserted that many little lakes,
which in their youth were full of water, even in the hottest season,
now hardly formed a narrow brook in summer, except after heavy rains;
but it did not appear to them that the rivers had lost any water.

Aoke Helm, found (on digging a well) first sand and little stones, to
the depth of eight feet; next a pale coloured clay, and then a black
one. At the depth of fifteen feet he found a piece of hard wood, and
several pieces of mundick or pyrites. He told me that he knew several
places in the Delaware, where the people went in boats, when he was
young; but which at present were changed into little islands, some of
which were near an English mile in length. These islands derive their
origin from a sand or bank in the river; on this the water washes some
clay, in which rushes come up, and thus the rest is generated by
degrees.

On a meeting of the oldest Swedes in the parish of Raccoon, I obtained
the following answers to the questions which I asked them on this
account. Whenever they dig a well in this neighbourhood, they always
find at the depth of twenty or thirty feet, great numbers of oyster
shells and clams: the latter are, as was above-mentioned, a kind of
large shells, which are found in bays, and of which the Indians make
their money. In many places, on digging wells a quantity of rushes and
reeds have been found almost wholly undamaged; and once on such an
occasion a whole bundle of flax was brought up, found between twenty
and thirty feet under ground; it seemed as little damaged as if it had
been lately put under ground; all looked at it with astonishment, as it
was beyond conception how it could get there; but I believe the good
people saw some American plants, such as the wild Virginian flax, or
Linum Virginianum, and the Antirrhinum Canadense, which look very like
common flax, yet it is remarkable that the bundle was really tied
together. The Europeans on their arrival in America, found our common
flax neither growing wild nor cultivated by the Indians, how then could
this bundle get into the ground? Can it be supposed, that past ages
have seen a nation here, so early acquainted with the use of flax? I
would rather abide by the opinion, that the above American plants, or
other similar ones, have been taken for flax. Charcoal and firebrands
have often been found under ground: The Swedish churchwarden, Eric
Ragnilson, told me that he had seen a quantity of them, which had been
brought up at the digging of a well: on such occasions, people have
often found (at the depth of between twenty and fifty feet) great
branches and blocks. There were some spots where twenty feet under the
surface of the earth, the people had found such trowels as the Indians
use: from these observations they all concluded, that this tract of
land had formerly been the bottom of the sea. It is to be observed,
that most of the wells which have hitherto been made, have been dug in
new settlements, where the wood was yet standing, and had probably
stood for centuries together. From the observations which have hitherto
been mentioned, and to which I shall add similar ones in the sequel, we
may, with a considerable degree of certainty conclude, that a great
part of the province of New Jersey, in ages unknown to posterity, was
part of the bottom of the sea, and was afterwards formed by the slime
and mud, and the many other things which the river Delaware carries
down along with it, from the upper parts of the country: however Cape
May seems to give some occasion for doubts, of which I shall speak in
the sequel.

November the 27th. The American evergreens are


     1. Ilex Aquifolium, holly.
     2. Kalmia latifolia, the spoon tree.
     3. Kalmia angustifolia, another species of it.
     4. Magnolia glauca, the beaver tree. The young trees of this kind
        only keep their leaves, the others drop them.
     5. Viscum album, or misletoe; this commonly grows upon the Nyssa
        aquatica, or tupelo tree, upon the Liquidambar styraciflua, or
        sweet gum tree, the oak and lime tree, so that their whole
        summits were frequently quite green in winter.
     6. Myrica cerifera, or the candleberry tree; of this however only
        some of the youngest shrubs preserve some leaves, but most of
        them had already lost them.
     7. Pinus Abies, the pine.
     8. Pinus sylvestris, the fir.
     9. Cupressus thyoides, the white cedar.
    10. Juniperus Virginiana, the red cedar.


Several oaks and other trees dropt their leaves here in winter, which
however keep them ever green, a little more to the south, and in
Carolina.

November the 30th. It has been observed, that the Europeans in North
America, whether they were born in Sweden, England, Germany or Holland;
or in North America, of European parents, always lost their teeth much
sooner than common; the women especially were subject to this
disagreeable circumstance, the men did not suffer so much from it.
Girls not above twenty years old, frequently had lost half of their
teeth, without any hopes of getting new ones: I have attempted to
penetrate into the causes of this early shedding of the teeth, but I
know not, whether I have hit upon a true one. Many people were of
opinion that the air of this country hurt the teeth: so much is certain
that the weather can no where be subject to more frequent and sudden
changes; for the end of a hot day, often turns out piercing cold, and
vice versa. Yet this change of weather, cannot be looked upon as having
any effect upon the shedding of the teeth, for the Indians prove the
contrary: they live in the same air, and always keep fine, entire white
teeth; this I have seen myself, and have been assured of by every body:
others ascribe it to the great quantities of fruit and sweet meats
which are here eaten. But I have known many people, who never eat any
fruit, and nevertheless had hardly a tooth left.

I then began to suspect the tea, which is drank here in the morning and
afternoon, especially by women, and is so common at present, that there
is hardly a farmer’s wife or a poor woman, who does not drink tea in
the morning: I was confirmed in this opinion when I took a journey
through some parts of the country which were still inhabited by
Indians. For Major General Johnson told me at that time, that several
of the Indians who lived close to the European settlements, had learnt
to drink tea. And it has been observed, that such of the Indian women,
as used themselves too much to this liquor, had in the same manner as
the European women, lost their teeth prematurely, though they had
formerly been quite sound. Those again, who had not used tea preserved
their teeth strong and sound to a great age.

I afterwards found, that the use of tea could not entirely cause this
accident. Several young women who lived in this country, but were born
in Europe, complained that they lost most of their teeth after they
came to America: I asked, whether they did not think that it arose from
the frequent use of tea, as it was known, that strong tea, as it were
enters into and corrodes the teeth; but they answered, that they had
lost their teeth before they had began to drink tea, but continuing my
enquiries, I found at last a sufficient cause, to account for the loss
of their teeth: each of these women owned, that they were accustomed to
eat every thing hot, and nothing was good in their opinion, unless they
could eat it as fast as it came from the fire. This is likewise the
case with the women in the country who lose their teeth much sooner and
more abundantly than the men. They drink tea in greater quantity and
much oftener, in the morning, and even at noon, when the employment of
the men will not allow them to sit at the tea-table. Besides that, the
Englishmen care very little for tea, and a bowl of punch is much more
agreeable to them. When the English women drink tea, they never pour it
out of the cup into the saucer, but drink it hot as it is out of the
former. The Indian women in imitation of them, swallow the tea in the
same manner. On the contrary those Indians whose teeth are sound, never
eat any thing hot, but take their meat either quite cold, or only just
milk warm.

I asked the Swedish churchwarden in Philadelphia, Mr. Bengtson, and a
number of old Swedes, whether their parents and countrymen had likewise
lost their teeth as soon as the American colonists; but they told me
that they had preserved them to a very great age. Bengtson assured me,
that his father at the age of seventy, cracked peach stones and the
black walnuts with his teeth, notwithstanding their great hardness,
which at this time no body dares to venture at that age. This confirms
what I have before said, for at that time the use of tea was not yet
known in North America.

No disease is more common here, than that which the English call fever
and ague, which is sometimes quotidian, tertian or quartan. But it
often happens, that a person who has had a tertian ague, after losing
it for a week or two, gets a quotidian ague in its stead, which after a
while again changes into a tertian. The fever commonly attacks the
people at the end of August, or beginning of September, and commonly
continues during autumn and winter till towards spring, when it ceases
entirely.

Strangers who arrive here, commonly are attacked by this sickness the
first or second year after their arrival; and it is more violent upon
them, than upon the natives, so that they sometimes die of it; but if
they escape the first time, they have the advantage of not being
visited again the next year, or perhaps never any more. It is commonly
said here, that strangers get the fever to accustom them to the
climate. The natives of European offspring, have annual fits of this
ague in some parts of the country: some however are soon delivered from
it, with others on the contrary it continues for six months together,
and others are afflicted with it till they die. The Indians also suffer
it, but not so violently as the Europeans. No age is secured against
it: in those places where it rages annually, you see old men and women
attacked with it; and even children in the cradle, sometimes not above
three weeks old: it is likewise quotidian, tertian or quartan with
them. This autumn the ague was more violent here, than it commonly used
to be. People who are afflicted with it, look as pale as death, and are
greatly weakened, but in general are not prevented from doing their
work in the intervals. It is remarkable, that every year there are
great parts of the country where this fever rages, and others where
scarce a single person has been taken ill. It likewise is worth notice,
that there are places where the people cannot remember that it formerly
prevailed in their country, though at present it begins to grow more
common: yet there was no other visible difference between the several
places. All the old Swedes, Englishmen, Germans, &amp;c. unanimously
asserted, that the fever had never been so violent, and of such
continuance when they were boys, as it is at present. They were
likewise generally of opinion, that about the year 1680, there were not
so many people afflicted with it, as about this time. However others
equally old, were of opinion that the fever was proportionably as
common formerly, as it is at present; but that it could not at that
time be so sensibly perceived, on account of the scarcity of
inhabitants, and the great distance of their settlements from each
other; it is therefore probable that the effects of the fever have at
all times been equal.

It would be difficult to determine the true causes of this disease;
they seem to be numerous, and not always alike: sometimes, and I
believe commonly several of them unite. I have taken all possible care
to sound the opinions of the physicians here on that head, and I here
offer them to the reader.

Some of them think that the peculiar qualities of the air of this
country cause this fever; but most of them assert that it is generated
by the standing and putrid water, which it seems is confirmed by
experience. For it has been observed in this country, that such people
as live in the neighbourhood of Morasses or Swamps, or in places where
a stagnant, stinking water is to be met with, are commonly infested
with the fever and ague every year, and get it more readily than
others. And this chiefly happens at a time of the year when those
stagnant waters are most evaporated by the excessive heat of the sun,
and the air is filled with the most noxious vapors. The fever likewise
is very violent in all places which have a very low situation, and
where salt water comes up with the tide twice in twenty four hours, and
unites with the stagnant, fresh water in the country. Therefore on
travelling in summer over such low places where fresh and salt water
unite, the nauseous stench arising from thence often forces the
traveller to stop his nose. On that account most of the inhabitants of
Penn’s neck, and Salem in New Jersey, where the ground has the
above-mentioned quality, are annually infested with the fever to a much
greater degree, than the inhabitants of the higher country. If an
inhabitant of the higher part of the country, where the people are free
from the fever, removes into the lower parts, he may be well assured
that the fever will attack him at the usual time, and that he will get
it again every year, as long as he continues in that country. People of
the liveliest complexion on coming into the low parts of the country,
and continuing there for some time, have entirely lost their colour and
become quite pale. However this cannot be the sole cause of the fever,
as I have been in several parts of the country which had a low
situation and had stagnant waters near them, where the people declared
they seldom suffered from this sickness: but these places were about
two or three degrees more northerly.

Others were of opinion that diet did very much towards it, and chiefly
laid the blame upon the inconsiderate and intemperate consumption of
fruit. This is particularly the case with the Europeans, who come into
America, and are not used to its climate and its fruit; for those who
are born here can bear more, yet are not entirely free from the bad
effects of eating too much. I have heard many Englishmen, Germans, and
others speak from their own experience on this account; they owned,
that they had often tried, and were certain that after eating a water
melon once or twice before they had breakfasted, they would have the
fever and ague in a few days after. Yet it is remarkable, that the
French in Canada told me that fevers were less common in that country,
though they consumed as many water melons as the English colonies, and
that it had never been observed that they occasioned a fever; but that
on coming in the hot season to the Illinois, an Indian nation which is
nearly in the same latitude with Pensylvania and New Jersey, they could
not eat a water melon without feeling the shaking fits of an ague, and
that the Indians therefore warned them not to eat of so dangerous a
fruit. Query, Does not this lead us to think that the greater heat in
Pensylvania, and the country of the Illinois, which are both five or
six degrees more southerly than Canada, makes fruit in some measure
more dangerous? In the English North American colonies, every
countryman plants a number of water melons, which are eaten whilst the
people make hay, or during the harvest when they have nothing upon
their stomachs, in order to cool them during the great heat, as that
juicy fruit seems very proper to give refreshment. In the same manner
melons, cucumbers, gourds, squashes, mulberries, apples, peaches,
cherries, and such like fruit are eaten here in summer, and altogether
contribute to the attacks of the ague.

But that the manner of living contributes greatly towards it, may be
concluded from the unanimous accounts of old people, concerning the
times of their childhood; according to which, the inhabitants of these
parts, were at that time not subject to so many diseases as they are at
present, and people were seldom sick. All the old Swedes likewise
agreed, that their countrymen, who first came into North America,
attained to a great age, and their children nearly to the same; but
that their grand children, and great grand children did not reach the
age of their ancestors, and their health was not near so vigorous and
durable. But the Swedes who first settled in America, lived very
frugally; they were poor, and could not buy rum, brandy, or other
strong liquors, which they seldom distilled themselves, as few of them
had a distilling vessel. However they sometimes had a good strong beer.
They did not understand the art of making cyder, which is now so common
in the country: tea, coffee, chocolate, which are at present even the
country people’s daily breakfast, were wholly unknown to them: most of
them had never tasted sugar or punch. The tea which is now drank, is
either very old, or mixed with all sorts of herbs, so that it no longer
deserves the name of tea: therefore it cannot have any good effect upon
those who use it plentifully; besides, it cannot fail of relaxing the
bowels, as it is drank both in the morning and in the afternoon quite
boiling hot. The Indians, the offspring of the first inhabitants of
this country, are a proof of what I have said. It is well known that
their ancestors, at the time of the first arrival of the Europeans,
lived to a very great age. According to the common accounts, it was
then not uncommon to find people among the Indians, who were above a
hundred years old: they lived frugally, and drank pure water: brandy,
rum, wine, and all the other strong liquors, were utterly unknown to
them; but since the christians have taught them to drink these liquors,
and the Indians have found them too palatable, those who cannot resist
their appetites, hardly reach half the age of their parents.

Lastly, some people pretended that the loss of many odoriferous plants,
with which the woods were filled at the arrival of the Europeans, but
which the cattle has now extirpated, might be looked upon as a cause of
the greater progress of the fever at present. The number of those
strong plants occasioned a pleasant scent to rise in the woods every
morning and evening. It is therefore not unreasonable to think that the
noxiousness of the effluvia from putrifying substances was then
prevented, so that they were not so dangerous to the inhabitants.

Several remedies are employed against this disease: the jesuit’s bark
was formerly a certain one, but at present it has not always this
effect, though they sell it genuine, and for the very best. Many people
accused it of leaving something noxious in the body. Yet it was
commonly observed, that when the bark was good, and it was taken as
soon as the fever made its appearance, and before the body was
weakened, it was almost sure to conquer the fever, so that the cold
fits never returned, and no pain or stiffness remained in the limbs;
but when the disease is rooted in, and has considerably weakened the
patients, or they are naturally very weak, the fever leaves them after
using the jesuit’s bark, but returns again in a fortnight’s time, and
obliges them to take the bark again; but the consequence frequently is
a pain and a stiffness in their limbs, and sometimes in their bowels,
which almost hinders them from walking: this pain continues for several
years together, and even accompanies some to the grave. This bad effect
is partly attributed to the bark, which can seldom be got genuine here,
and partly to the little care which the patients take in using the
bark. A man of my acquaintance was particularly dexterous in expelling
the ague by the use of the jesuit’s bark. His manner of proceeding was
as follows: when it was possible, the patient must use the remedy as
soon as the fever begun, and before it was settled in his body: but
before he took the medicine, he was to take a diaphoretic remedy, as
that had been found very salutary; and as the fever is frequently of
such a nature here, as not to make the patient sweat, even when the hot
fit is upon him, a perspiration was to be brought about by some other
means. To that purpose the patient took his dose on the day when he had
his cold fit, and was not allowed to eat any thing at night. The next
morning he continued in a warm bed, drank a quantity of tea, and was
well covered that he might perspire plentifully. He continued so till
the perspiration ceased, and then left the bed in a hot room, and
washed his body with milk warm water, in order to cleanse it from the
impurities that settled on it from the perspiration, and to prevent
their stopping up of the pores. The patient was then dried again, and
at last he took the bark several times in one day. This was repeated
twice or thrice on the days after he had the ague, and it commonly left
him without returning, and most people recover so well, that they do
not look pale after their sickness.

The bark of the root of the Tulip tree, or Liriodendron Tulipifera,
taken in the same manner as the jesuit’s bark, sometimes had a similar
effect.

Several people peeled the roots of the Cornus florida, or Dog wood, and
gave this peel to the patients; and even some people, who could not be
cured by the jesuit’s bark, have recovered by the help of this. I have
likewise seen people cured of the fever, by taking brimstone reduced to
powder, and mixed with sugar every night before they went to bed, and
every morning before they got up: they took it three or four times in
the intervals, and at each time drank some warm liquor, to wash the
powder down. However others that tried the same remedy did not find
much relief from it.

Some people collected the yellow bark of the peach tree, especially
that which is on the root and boiled it in water, till half of it was
evaporated by boiling. Of this decoction the patient took every morning
about a wine glass full, before he had eaten any thing. This liquor has
a disagreeable taste, and contracts the mouth and tongue like alum; yet
several persons at Raccoon who had tried many remedies in vain, were
cured by this.

Others boiled the leaves of the Potentilla reptans, or of the
Potentilla canadensis, in water, and made the patients drink it before
the ague fit came on, and it is well known that several persons have
recovered by this means.

The people who are settled upon the river Mohawk in New York, both
Indians and Europeans collect the root of the Geum rivale, and pound
it. This powder some of them boil in water till it is a pretty strong
decoction: others only infuse cold water on it and leave it so for a
day; others mix it with brandy. Of this medicine the patient is to take
a wine glass full on the morning of the day when the fever does not
come, before he has eaten any thing. I was assured that this was one of
the surest remedies, and more certain than the jesuit’s bark.

The people who live near the iron mines, declared that they were seldom
or never visited by the fever and ague; but when they have the fever,
they drink the water of such fountains, as arise from the iron mines,
and have a strong chalybeat taste; and they assured me that this remedy
was infallible. Other people therefore who did not live very far from
such springs, went to them for a few days, when they had the fever, in
order to drink the water, which commonly cured them.

I have already shown above, that sage mixed with lemon juice, has been
found very salutary against the ague.

It was however universally remarkable, that that which cures one person
of it, has no effect upon another.

The pleurisy is likewise a disease which the people of this country are
much subject to. The Swedes in this province call it stitches and
burning, and they always mean the pleurisy whenever they mention those
words. Many of the old Swedes told me that they had heard very little
of it when they were young, and that their parents had known still less
of it in their childhood; but that it was so common now, that many
people died every year of it: yet it has been observed, that in some
years this disease has been very moderate, and taken few people away
with it, whilst in other years it makes great havock: it likewise is
more violent in some places than in others.

In the autumn of the year 1728, it swept away many at Penn’s neck, a
place below Raccoon, and nearer to the Delaware, where a number of
Swedes are settled. Almost all the Swedes there died of it, though they
were very numerous. From hence it happened that their children who were
left in a very tender age, and grew up among the English children,
forgot their mother tongue, so that few of them understand it at
present. Since that time, though the pleurisy has every year killed a
few people at Penn’s neck, yet it has not carried off any considerable
numbers. It rested as it were till the autumn of the year 1748, but
then it began to make dreadful havock, and every week six or ten of the
old people died. The disease was so violent, that when it attacked a
person, he seldom lived above two or three days; and of those who were
taken ill with it, very few recovered. When the pleurisy was got into a
house, it killed most of the old people in it: it was a true pleurisy,
but it had a peculiarity with it, for it commonly began with a great
swelling under the throat and in the neck, and with a difficulty of
swallowing. Some people looked upon it as contagious; and others
seriously declared, that when it came into a family, not only those who
lived in the same house suffered from it, but even such relations as
lived far off. There have been several people at Penn’s neck, who,
without visiting their sick friends, have got the pleurisy and died of
it: I do not dispute the truth of this, though I do not agree to the
conclusion. The pleurisy was the most violent in November; yet some old
people died of it even in the next winter; but children were pretty
free from it. The physicians did not know what to make of it, nor how
to remedy it.

It is difficult to determine the causes of such violent diseases. An
old English surgeon who lived here gave the following reason. The
inhabitants of this country drink great quantities of punch and other
strong liquors in summer, when it is very hot; by that means the veins
in the diaphragm contract, and the blood grows thick. Towards the end
of October and the beginning of November, the weather is apt to alter
very suddenly, so that heat and cold change several times a day. When
the people during this changeable weather are in the open air, they
commonly get this disease. It is likewise certain that the air is more
unwholesome one year, than another, which depends upon the heat, and
other circumstances: this peculiar quality of the air must of course
produce a pleurisy. It is remarkable, that both in the year 1728, and
in the present, when so many people died at Penn’s neck, few died at
Raccoon, though the two places are near each other, and seem to have
the same soil and climate. But there is this difference that Penn’s
neck lies remarkably low, and Raccoon pretty high. The people in the
former place have settled between marshes and swamps, in which the
water stagnates and putrifies; and most of these places are covered
with trees, by which means the wet is shut up still more, and near such
marshes, are the houses. Lastly the water at Penn’s neck is not
reckoned so good as that in Raccoon, but has some taste. It likewise
becomes brackish in several little rivers when the Delaware during the
tide rises very high, and runs up into them. On the banks of these
rivulets live many of the Swedes, and take water for common use from
them.

December the 3d. This morning I set out for Philadelphia, where I
arrived in the evening.

Wild grapes are very abundant in the woods, and of various kinds; a
species of them which are remarkable for their size, grow in the
marshes, and are greedily eaten by the Raccoon: they are therefore
called marsh grapes, but the English call them fox grapes; they have
not an agreeable flavour, and are seldom eaten by the inhabitants of
this country, who make use of a small kind of wild grapes, which grow
on a dry soil, and pretty late in autumn when they are quite ripe, are
eaten raw, and have a very good flavour, being a mixture of sweet and
acid: some people dry these grapes when gathered and bake them in
tarts, &amp;c. they likewise make use of them as dried sweetmeats. The
Swedes formerly made a pretty good wine from them; but have now left it
off. However some of the English still press an agreeable liquor from
these grapes, which they assured me was as good as the best claret, and
that it would keep for several years.

The manner of preparing this sort of wine has been described at large
in an almanack of this country, for the year 1743, and is as follows:
the grapes are collected from the twenty first of September to about
the eleventh of November, that is as they grow ripe: they must be
gathered in dry weather, and after the dew is gone off: the grapes are
cleared of the cobwebs, dry leaves, and other things adhering to them.
Next a great hogshead is prepared which has either had treacle or
brandy in; it is washed very clean, one of the bottoms beat out, and
the other placed on a stand for the purpose, or on pieces of wood in
the cellar, or else in a warm room, about two feet above the ground:
the grapes are put into this hogshead, and as they sink lower in three
or four days time more are added. A man with naked feet gets into the
hogshead and treads the grapes, and in about half an hour’s time the
juice is forced out; the man then turns the lowest grapes uppermost,
and treads them for about a quarter of an hour: this is sufficient to
squeeze the good juice out of them: for an additional pressure would
even crush the unripe grapes, and give the whole a disagreeable
flavour. The hogshead is then covered with a thick blanket; but if
there is no cellar, or it is very cold, two are spread over it. Under
this covering the juice is left to ferment for the first time, and in
the next four or five days it ferments and works very strongly. As soon
as the fermentation ceases, a hole is made about six inches from the
bottom, and some of the juice is tapped off about twice in a day. As
soon as this is clear and settled, it is poured into an anker of a
middling size; for from twenty bushels of grapes, they get about as
many gallons of juice; the anker remains untouched and the must in it
ferments a second time: at this time it is necessary that the anker be
quite full; the scum which settles at the bunghole, must be taken off,
and the anker always filled up with more must, which is kept ready for
that purpose: this is continued till christmas, when the anker may be
stopped up; at last the wine is ready in February and bottled. It is
likewise usual here, to put some of the ripe grapes into a vessel in
order to make a vinegar, and that which is got by this means is very
good. Several people made brandy from these grapes which has a very
pleasant taste, but is still more pleasant, if the fruits of the
persimon are mixed with it. The wood of these vines is of no use, it is
so brittle that it cannot be used for sticks: on cutting into the stem,
a white, insipid resin comes out a few hours after the wound is made.
In many gardens vines are planted for the purpose of making arbours for
which they are indeed excellent; as their large and plentiful leaves
form a very close cover against the scorching heat of the sun. When the
vines flower here in May and June, the flowers exhale a strong, but
exceeding pleasant and refreshing smell, which is perceptible even at a
great distance. Therefore on coming into the woods about that time, you
may judge from the sweet perfume in the air, arising from the flowers
of the vines, that you are near them, though you do not see them.
Though the winters be ever so severe, yet they do not affect the vines.
Each grape is about the size of a pea, but further southward they are
said to be of the size of common raisins, and of a finer flavour.
Further up in the country, during a part of autumn, they are the chief
food of bears, who climb up the trees in order to pluck them. People
are of opinion that if the wild vines were cultivated with more care,
the grapes would grow larger, and more palatable.

December the 5th. I shall here mention two prognosticks of the weather,
which were greatly valued here. Some people pretended to foretel that
the ensuing winter would not be a severe one: this they conjectured
from having seen wild geese and other migratory birds go to the south
in October, but return a few days ago in great numbers, and even pass
on further to the north. Indeed the ensuing winter was one of the most
temperate ones.

Several persons likewise assured us that we should have rain before to
morrow night. The reason they gave for this conjecture was, that this
morning at sun rising, from their windows they had seen every thing
very plainly on the other side of the river, so that it appeared much
nearer than usual, and that this commonly foreboded rain. This presage
was likewise pretty exactly fulfilled.

The Indians before the arrival of the Europeans, had no notion of the
use of iron, though that metal was abundant in their country. However
they knew in some measure how to make use of copper. Some Dutchmen who
lived here, still preserved the old account among them, that their
ancestors on their first settling in New York had met with many of the
Indians, who had tobacco pipes of copper, and who made them understand
by signs, that they got them in the neighbourhood: afterwards the fine
copper mine was discovered, upon the second river between
Elizabeth-town and New York. On digging in this mine, the people met
with holes worked in the mountain, out of which some copper had been
taken, and they found even some tools, which the Indians probably made
use of, when they endeavoured to get the metal for their pipes. Such
holes in the mountains have likewise been found in some parts of
Pensylvania, viz. below Newcastle towards the sea side, and always some
marks of a copper ore along with them. Some people have conjectured,
that the Spaniards, after discovering Mexico, sailed along the coasts
of North America, and landed now and then, in order to enquire whether
any gold or silver was to be met with, and that they perhaps made these
holes in the mountains: but supposing them to have made such a voyage
along the coasts, they could not immediately have found out the copper
mines; and they probably did not stop to blast this ore, as they were
bent only upon gold and silver; it is therefore almost undoubted that
the Indians dug these holes: or may we be allowed to suspect that our
old Normans, long before the discoveries of Columbus, came into these
parts and met with such veins of copper, when they sailed to what they
called the excellent Wineland, [51] of which our ancient traditional
records called Sagor speak, and which undoubtedly was North America.
But in regard to this, I shall have occasion in the sequel better to
explain my sentiments. It was remarkable, that in all those places
where such holes have lately been found in the mountains, which
manifestly seem to have been dug by men, they were always covered with
a great quantity of earth, as if they were intended to remain hidden
from strangers.

December the 6th. On long voyages the sailors sometimes catch such fish
as are known to none of the ship’s company; but as they are very greedy
after fresh provisions, they seldom abstain from eating them, however
it proves often venturing too much, experience having shown, that their
want of caution has often cost them their lives, for sometimes
poisonous fish are caught. But there is a method of finding them out,
as I have heard from several captains of ships: it is usual when such
unknown fish are boiled, to put a silver button, or any piece of silver
into the kettle, which if the fish be poisonous, will turn quite black,
but if it be not, it will not change: some of the seamen referred to
their own repeated experience. [52]

Mr. Franklin and several other gentlemen frequently told me, that a
powerful Indian, who possessed Rhode Island had sold it to the English
for a pair of spectacles: it is large enough for a prince’s domain, and
makes a peculiar government at present. This Indian knew to set a true
value upon a pair of spectacles: for undoubtedly if those glasses were
not so plentiful, and only a few of them could be found, they would on
account of their great use, bear the same price with diamonds.

The servants which are made use of in the English American colonies are
either free persons, or slaves, and the former are again of two
different sorts.

1. Those who are quite free serve by the year, they are not only
allowed to leave their service at the expiration of their year, but may
leave it at any time when they do not agree with their masters. However
in that case they are in danger of losing their wages, which are very
considerable. A man servant who has some abilities, gets between
sixteen and twenty pounds in Pensylvania currency, but those in the
country do not get so much. A servant maid gets eight or ten pounds a
year: these servants have their food besides their wages, but must buy
their own clothes, and what they get of these they must thank their
master’s goodness for.

2. The second kind of free servants consist of such persons as annually
come from Germany, England and other countries, in order to settle
here. These new comers are very numerous every year: there are old and
young ones, and of both sexes; some of them have fled from oppression,
under which they supposed themselves to have laboured. Others have been
driven from their country by persecution on account of religion; but
most of them are poor, and have not money enough to pay their passage,
which is between six and eight pounds sterling for each person;
therefore they agree with the captain that they will suffer themselves
to be sold for a few years, on their arrival. In that case the person
who buys them, pays the freight for them, but frequently very old
people come over, who cannot pay their passage, they therefore sell
their children, so that they serve both for themselves and for their
parents: there are likewise some who pay part of their passage, and
they are sold only for a short time. From these circumstances it
appears, that the price of the poor foreigners who come over to North
America is not equal, and that some of them serve longer than others:
when their time is expired, they get a new suit of clothes from their
master, and some other things: he is likewise obliged to feed and
clothe them during the years of their servitude. Many of the Germans
who come hither, bring money enough with them to pay their passage, but
rather suffer themselves to be sold, with a view that during their
servitude they may get some knowledge of the language and quality of
the country, and the like, that they may the better be able to consider
what they shall do when they have got their liberty. Such servants are
taken preferable to all others, because they are not so dear; for to
buy a Negroe or black slave, requires too much money at once; and men
or maids who get yearly wages, are likewise too dear; but this kind of
servants may be got for half the money, and even for less; for they
commonly pay fourteen pounds, Pensylvania currency, for a person who is
to serve four years, and so on in proportion. Their wages therefore are
not above three pounds Pensylvania currency per ann. This kind of
servants, the English call servings. When a person has bought such a
servant for a certain number of years, and has an intention to sell him
again, he is at liberty to do so; but he is obliged, at the expiration
of the term of the servitude to provide the usual suit of cloaths for
the servant, unless he has made that part of the bargain with the
purchaser. The English and Irish commonly sell themselves for four
years, but the Germans frequently agree with the captain before they
set out, to pay him a certain sum of money, for a certain number of
persons; as soon as they arrive in America, they go about and try to
get a man who will pay the passage for them. In return they give
according to the circumstances one, or several of their children to
serve a certain number of years, at last they make their bargain with
the highest bidder.

3. The Negroes or Blacks make the third kind. They are in a manner
slaves; for when a Negro is once bought, he is the purchaser’s servant
as long as he lives, unless he gives him to another, or makes him free.
However it is not in the power of the master to kill his Negro for a
fault, but he must leave it to the magistrates to proceed according to
the laws. Formerly the Negroes were brought over from Africa, and
bought by almost every one who could afford it. The quakers alone
scrupled to have slaves; but they are no longer so nice, and they have
as many Negroes as other people. However many people cannot conquer the
idea of its being contrary to the laws of christianity to keep slaves.
There are likewise several free Negroes in town, who have been lucky
enough to get a very zealous quaker for their master, who gave them
their liberty, after they had faithfully served him for some time.

At present they seldom bring over any Negroes to the English colonies,
for those which were formerly brought thither have multiplied
considerably. In regard to their marriage they proceed as follows: in
case you have not only male but likewise female Negroes, they must
intermarry, and then the children are all your slaves: but if you
possess a male Negro only, and he has an inclination to marry a female
belonging to a different master, you do not hinder your Negro in so
delicate a point; but it is no advantage to you, for the children
belong to the master of the female; it is therefore advantageous to
have Negro-women. A man who kills his Negro must suffer death for it:
there is not however an example here of a white man’s having been
executed on this account. A few years ago it happened that a master
killed his slave; his friends and even the magistrates secretly advised
him to leave the country, as otherwise they could not avoid taking him
prisoner, and then he would be condemned to die according to the laws
of the country, without any hopes of saving him. This lenity was
employed towards him, that the Negroes might not have the satisfaction
of seeing a master executed for killing his slave; for this would lead
them to all sorts of dangerous designs against their masters, and to
value themselves too much.

The Negroes were formerly brought from Africa, as I mentioned before;
but now this seldom happens, for they are bought in the West Indies, or
American Islands, whither they were originally brought from their own
country: for it has been found that on transporting the Negroes from
Africa, immediately into these northern countries, they have not such a
good state of health, as when they gradually change places, and are
first carried from Africa to the West Indies, and from thence to North
America. It has frequently been found, that the Negroes cannot stand
the cold here so well as the Europeans or whites; for whilst the latter
are not in the least affected by the cold, the toes and fingers of the
former are frequently frozen. There is likewise a material difference
among them in this point; for those who come immediately from Africa,
cannot bear the cold so well as those who are either born in this
country, or have been here for a considerable time; for the frost
easily hurts the hands or feet of the Negroes which come from Africa,
or occasions violent pains in their whole body, or in some parts of it,
though it does not at all affect those who have been here for some
time. There are frequent examples that the Negroes on their passage
from Africa, if it happens in winter, have some of their limbs
destroyed by frost on board the ship, when the cold is but very
inconsiderable and the sailors are scarce obliged to cover their hands.
I was even assured, that some Negroes have been seen here, who have had
an excessive pain in their legs, which afterwards broke in the middle,
and dropt entirely from the body, together with the flesh on them. Thus
it is the same case with men here, as with plants which are brought
from the southern countries, and cannot accustom themselves to a colder
climate.

The price of Negroes differs according to their age, health and
abilities. A full grown Negro costs from forty pounds and upwards to a
hundred of Pensylvania currency. There are even examples that a
gentleman has paid hundred pounds for a black slave at Philadelphia,
and refused to sell him again for the same money. A Negro boy, or girl,
of two or three years old, can hardly be got for less than eight or
fourteen pounds in Pensylvanian currency. Not only the quakers, but
likewise several christians of other denominations sometimes set their
Negroes at liberty. This is done in the following manner: when a
gentleman has a faithful Negro who has done him great services, he
sometimes declares him independent at his death. This is however very
expensive; for they are obliged to make a provision for the Negro thus
set at liberty, to afford him subsistence when he is grown old, that he
may not be driven by necessity to wicked actions, or that he may be at
any body’s charge, for these free Negroes become very lazy and indolent
afterwards. But the children which the free Negro has begot during his
servitude are all slaves, though their father be free. On the other
hand those Negro children are free whose parents are at liberty. The
Negroes in the North American colonies are treated more mildly, and fed
better than those in the West Indies. They have as good food as the
rest of the servants, and they possess equal advantages in all things,
except their being obliged to serve their whole life time, and get no
other wages than what their master’s goodness allows them: they are
likewise clad at their master’s expence. On the contrary, in the West
Indies, and especially in the Spanish Islands they are treated very
cruelly; therefore no threats make more impression upon a Negro here,
than that of sending him over to the West Indies, in case he would not
reform. It has likewise been frequently found by experience, that when
you show too much remissness to these Negroes, they grow so obstinated,
that they will no longer do any thing but of their own accord:
therefore a strict discipline is very necessary, if their master
expects to be satisfied with their services.

In the year 1620, some Negroes were brought to North America in a Dutch
ship, and in Virginia they bought twenty of them. These are said to
have been the first that came hither. When the Indians who were then
more numerous in the country than at present, saw these black people
for the first time, they thought they were a true breed of Devils, and
therefore they called them Manitto for a great while: this word in
their language signifies not only God, but likewise the Devil. Some
time before that, when they saw the first European ship on their
coasts, they were perfectly persuaded that God himself was in the ship.
This account I got from some Indians, who preserved it among them as a
tradition which they had received from their ancestors: therefore the
arrival of the Negroes seemed to them to have confused every thing; but
since that time, they have entertained less disagreeable notions of the
Negroes, for at present many live among them, and they even sometimes
intermarry, as I myself have seen.

The Negroes have therefore been upwards of a hundred and thirty years
in this country: but the winters here especially in New England and New
York, are as severe as our Swedish winters. I therefore very carefully
enquired whether the cold had not been observed, to affect the colour
of the Negroes, and to change it, so that the third or fourth
generation from the first that came hither, were not so black as their
ancestors. But I was generally answered, that there was not the least
difference of colour to be perceived; and that a Negro born here of
parents which were likewise born in this country, and whose ancestors
both men and women had all been blacks born in this country, up to the
third or fourth generation, was not at all different in colour, from
those Negroes who are brought directly over from Africa. From hence
many people conclude, that a Negro or his posterity do not change
colour, though they continue ever so long in a cold climate; but the
mixing of a white man with a Negro woman, or of a Negro with a white
woman has a different effect, therefore to prevent any disagreeable
mixtures of the white people and Negroes, and that the Negroes may not
form too great an opinion of themselves, to the disadvantage of their
masters, I am told there is a law made prohibiting the whites of both
sexes to marry Negroes, under pain of death, and deprivation of the
clergyman who marries them: but that the whites and blacks sometimes
mix, appears from children of a mixed complexion, which are sometimes
born.

It is likewise greatly to be pitied, that the masters of these Negroes
in most of the English colonies take little care of their spiritual
welfare, and let them live on in their pagan darkness. There are even
some, who would be very ill pleased at, and would by all means hinder
their Negroes from being instructed in the doctrines of christianity,
to this they are partly led by the conceit of its being shameful, to
have a spiritual brother or sister among so despicable a people, partly
by thinking that they should not be able to keep their Negroes so
meanly afterwards; and partly through fear of the Negroes growing too
proud, on seeing themselves upon a level with their masters in
religious matters.

Several writings are well known, which mention, that the Negroes in
South America have a kind of poison with which they kill each other,
though the effect is not sudden, but happens a long time after the
person has taken it: the same dangerous art of poisoning is known by
the Negroes in North America, as has frequently been experienced.
However only a few of them know the secret, and they likewise know the
remedy against it, therefore when a Negro feels himself poisoned and
can recollect the enemy, who might possible have given him the poison,
he goes to him, and endeavours by money and entreaties to move him to
deliver him from the poison; but if the Negro is malicious, he does not
only deny that he ever poisoned him, but likewise that he knows a
remedy against it: this poison does not kill immediately, for sometimes
the sick person dies some years after. But from the moment he has the
poison he falls into a consumption and enjoys few days of good health:
such a poor wretch often knows that he is poisoned, the moment he gets
the poison. The Negroes commonly employ it on such of their brethren as
behave well, are beloved by their masters, and separate as it were from
their countrymen, or do not like to converse with them. They have
likewise often other reasons for their enmity; but there are few
examples of their having poisoned their masters. Perhaps the mild
treatment they receive, keeps them from doing it, or perhaps they fear
that they may be discovered, and that in such a case, the severest
punishments would be inflicted on them.

They never discover what the poison consists of, and keep it secret
beyond conception. It is probable that it is a very common thing which
may be got all the world over, for wherever they are they can always
easily procure it. Therefore it cannot be a plant, as several learned
men have thought; for that is not to be met with every where. I have
heard many accounts here of Negroes who have been killed by this
poison. I shall only mention one incident which happened during my stay
in this country. A man here had a Negro who was exceedingly faithful to
him, and behaved so well, that he would not have given him for twenty
other Negroes. His master likewise shewed him a peculiar kindness, and
the slave’s conduct equalled that of the best christian servant; he
likewise conversed as little as possible with the other Negroes; on
that account they hated him to excess, but as he was scarce ever in
company with them, they had no opportunity of conveying the poison to
him, which they had often tried. However on coming to town during the
fair (for he lived in the country) some other Negroes invited him to
drink with them. At first he would not, but they pressed him till he
was obliged to comply. As soon as he came into the room, the others
took a pot from the wall and pledged him, desiring him to drink
likewise: he drank, but when he took the pot from his mouth, he said
what beer is this? It is full of ******. I purposely omit what he
mentioned, for it seems undoubtedly to have been the name of the poison
with which malicious Negroes do so much harm, and which is to be met
with almost every where. It might be too much employed to wicked
purposes, and it is therefore better that it remains unknown. The other
Negroes and Negro-women fell a laughing at the complaints of their
hated countryman, and danced and sung as if they had done an excellent
action, and had at last obtained the point so much wished for. The
innocent Negro went away immediately, and when he got home, said that
the other Negroes had certainly poisoned him: he then fell into a
consumption, and no remedy could prevent his death.


                          End of Vol. I.









ADVERTISEMENT.


The whole Sheet Map of a great Part of North America, intended for the
Illustration of these Travels, could not be got ready in Time for the
first Volume, on Account of its Size and the great many Names of Places
brought into it, which must give it a Superiority above any Map
hitherto published of this Part of the World: but the Translator hopes,
the Public will the more readily excuse this Omission, as it will
greatly tend to make the Map more perfect, and as the second Volume
will soon appear, where it shall undoubtedly be inserted.

At the same Time he intreats the Encouragers of this Work to compleat
the Subscriptions for the second Volume, and to favour him with the
Lists of Subscribers as soon as possible; and if any more Gentlemen
will favour him with their Subscriptions, he will look upon it as an
incentive the more vigorously to go on with the rest of the
Publication.









NOTES


[1] The same opinion has been confirmed by Mr. Buffon in his Hist.
Naturelle. tom. 1. art. xix. Vol. 2. p. 419 of the edit. in twelves. F.

[2] The name of Porpesse is certainly derived from the name Porcopesce,
given to this genus by the Italians; and it is remarkable that almost
all the European nations conspired in calling them Sea-hogs, their name
being in German Meer Schwein; the Danish, Swedish, and Norvegian,
Marsuin, from whence the French borrowed their Marsouin. The natives of
Iceland call them Suinhual, i.e. a Swine-whale, and so likewise the
Slavonian nations have their Swinia Morskaya. Whether this consent
arises from their rooting the sand at the bottom of the sea in quest of
Sand-eels and Sea-worms like swine, or from the vast quantity of lard
surrounding their bodies is uncertain. F.

[3] Mr. Kalm is certainly mistaken in reckoning the Bottle-nose amongst
the Dolphin kind; it has no teeth in its mouth as all the fish of that
class have, and therefore belongs to the first order of the Whales, or
those that are without teeth. See Mr. Pennant’s British Zoology, Vol.
3. p. 43. where it is called the beaked Whale, and very well described;
a drawing is seen in the explanatory table, n. I. Perhaps it would not
be improper to call it Balæna ampullata. F.

[4] In Mr. Pennant’s British Zoology vol. 3. p. 282. is the best
account of this fish to be met with; and in his British Zoology,
illustrated by Plates and brief explanations is plate xliv. a good and
exact drawing of the fish, the upper figure representing it in front,
the lower sideways. F.

[5] Head of the Moravian Brethren. F.

[6] Dr. Linnæus mentions only one species of Nyssa, namely Nyssa
aquatica; Mr. Kalm does not mention the name of the species; but if his
is not a different species, it must at least be a variety, since he
says it grows on hills, whereas the aquatica grows in the water. F.

[7] Quere. Is this the Juglans baccata of Linnæus? F.

[8] This species is not to be met with in Linn. spec. plant. F.

[9] In Miller’s Garden Dictionary, it is called Ketmia Indica folio
ficus, fructu pentagono, recurvo esculento, graciliori, et longiori.

[10] Nitrum Crystallus montana, Linn. Syst. nat. 3. p. 84. Crystallus
hexagona pellucida non Colorata. Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 100.
Crystallus montana, colourless crystal. Forster’s Introd. to
Mineralogy, p. 13.

[11] Pyrites crystallinus, Linn. Syst. nat. 3. p. 113. Marchasitæ
hexaëdricæ tesselares. Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 211. Marcasitæ, vel
crystalli pyritacei, Marcasites. Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p.
39.

[12] Mica membranacea, Linn. Syst. nat. 3. p. 58.

Mica membranacea pellucidissima flexilis alba. Wallerius’s Min. p. 120.

Russian glass, Muscovy glass, Isinglass, Vitrum ruthenicum, Vitrum
Mariæ. Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 18.

[13] Marmor rude, Linn. Syst. nat. 3. p. 41.

Calcareus particulis scintillantibus. Wall. Min. p. 39.

Calcareus scintillans, glittering limestone. Forster’s Introd. to
Mineral. p. 9.

[14] This has been confirmed, since Cape Breton is in the hands of the
English, and it is reported that the strata of coals run through the
whole isle, and some basset out to day near the sea-shore, so that this
isle will afford immense treasures of coals, when the government will
find it convenient, to have them dug for the benefit of the Nation. F.

[15] The English reader, who is perhaps not so well acquainted with the
weather of the Swedish autumn, may form an idea of it, by having
recourse to the Calendarium Floræ, or the botanical and œconomical
almanack of Sweden, in Dr. Linnæus’s Amœn. Academ. and in Mr.
Stillingfleet’s Swedish tracts, translated from the Amœn. Acad. 2d.
edition. F.

[16] Vide Hackluyt’s collect. voy. III. 246.

[17] Vide Medical, &amp;c. cases and experiments, translated from the
Swedish, London 1758. p. 282. P.

[18] This has all the appearance of a vulgar error: neither does the
succeeding account of the American bears being carnivorous, agree with
the observations of the most judicious travellers, who deny the fact.
P.

But however it might be easible to reconcile both opinions. For Europe
has two or three kinds of bears, one species of which is carnivorous,
the other lives only on vegetables: the large brown species, with its
small variety, are reputed to be carnivorous, the black species is
merely phytivorous. In case therefore both species are found in North
America, it would be very easy to account for their being both
carnivorous and not. F.

[19] Quartzum hyalinum, Linn. Syst. nat. 3. p. 65. Quartzum solidum
pellucidum, Wallerii Miner. 91. The common Quartz, Forster’s
Mineralogy, p. 16. And Quartzum coloratum, Linn. Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.
Quartzum solidum opacum coloratum. Wall. Min. 99. The impure Quartz,
Forst. Min. p. 16.

[20] In Sweden, and in the north of Germany, the round holes in rivers,
with a stoney or rocky bed, which the whirling of the water has made,
are called giants pots; these holes are likewise mentioned in Mr.
Grosleys new observations on Italy, Vol. I. p. 8. F.

[21] How far this approbation of the Royal Society, ought to be
credited, is to be understood from the advertisements published at the
head of each new volume of the Philosophical Transactions. F.

[22] Thomas Herriot, servant to Sir Walter Raleigh, who was employed by
him to examine into the productions of North America, makes no mention
of the peach among the other fruits he describes, and M. du Pratz, who
has given a very good account of Louisiana and the Missisippi, says,
that the natives got their peaches from the English colony of Carolina,
before the French settled there. P.

[23] These worms are the Larva’s of the Oestrus or Gadfly, which
deposits its eggs on the back of cattle, and the Larva’s being hatched
from these eggs, cause great sores, wherein they live till they are
ready for their change. In the south of Russia they use for the same
purpose the decoction of Veratrum, or the white Hellebore. F.

[24] The bones and tusks of Elephants are not only found in Russia, but
also in the canton of Basel in Swisserland, in the dominions of the
Marquis of Bareith in Franconia, and more instances are found in the
Protogæa of the celebrated Leibnitz. Lately near the river Ohio have
been discovered, a great number of skeletons of Elephants with their
tusks, and very remarkable grinders still sticking in their jaw bones
were sent to the British Museum; the late Dr. Littleton Bishop of
Carlisle, also lodged some teeth sticking in their jawbones in the
Museum of the Royal Society, which were brought from Peru. The rivers
Chatunga and Indighirka in Siberia, are remarkable for affording on
their banks great quantities of bones and tusks of Elephants, which
being preserved there by the great frost, and in the short summer of a
few weeks, the rain being rare, these tusks are commonly so fresh that
they are employed in Russia, as common ivory, on account of the great
quantity brought from these places to Russia; some of them were eight
feet long, and of three hundred pounds weight. There have been found
grinders of nine inches diameter. But the American grinders of
Elephants from near the Ohio are yet more remarkable, on account of
their being provided with crowns on their tops, such as are only found
in the carnivorous animals, and such as feed on hard bones or nuts.
Whilst on the contrary, Elephants at present feeding on grasses and
soft vegetables have no such crowns at the tops of their grinders.
Livy, it is true, makes a distinction between the Asiatic or Indian
Elephants, and the African ones; and remarks the latter to be inferior
to the former in size and vigour; but whether the teeth in these
animals are so much different from those of the other variety, has
never been attended to. This circumstance of the difference in the
fossil grinders of Elephants, from those in the living ones, and the
place where these skeletons were found in, viz. Siberia, Germany and
America, where at present no Elephants are to be met with, opens a wide
field to conjectures in regard to the way, by which these animals were
carried to those spots. The flood in the deluge perhaps has carried
them thither; nor is it contrary to reason, history or revelation, to
believe, these skeletons to be the remainders of animals, which lived
on the surface of this globe, anterior to the Mosaic creation, which
may be considered only as a new modification of the creatures living on
this globe, adapted to its present state, under which it will remain
till circumstances will make a new change necessary, and then our globe
will by a new creation of revolution appear more adapted to its state,
and be stocked with a set of animals more suitable to that state. Every
man used to philosophy and reasoning will find, that this plan gives a
grand idea of the Creator, his œconomy and management of the universe:
and moreover, it is conformable to the meaning of the words of a sacred
writer, who says: Ps. civ. 29. 30. Thou bidest thy face and they (small
and great beasts) are troubled; thou takest away their breath, they
die, and return to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are
created; and thou renewest the fact of the earth. See Dr. Hunter’s
remarks on the above-mentioned teeth, in the Philosophical Trans. Vol.
lviii. F.

[25] In Mr. Osbeck’s Voyage to China, Vol I. p. 50. in a note, an
account is given of this kind of land, which the Swedes call
Swedieland, where it is observed, that the trees being burnt, their
ashes afford manure sufficient for three years, after which they are
left uncultivated again, till after twenty or more years, a new
generation of trees being produced on them, the country people burn
them, and cultivate the country for three years again. F.

[26] The learned Dr. Wallerius, in his Mineralogy, §. 8. in the note to
the article, Humus communis atra, mentions that some people were of
opinion, that the mould of our globe increased their parts, especially
in such places as had been uncultivated ever since the deluge, and that
thus in a hundred years, half an inch of mould was produced. But he
observes in the same time, that this observation was not at all exact;
for as the common mould seldom exceeds a soot, it must from thence
follow, that since the deluge no more than 2400 years were elapsed,
though the scripture chronology reckons upwards of 4000 years since
that event: besides this, he remarks, that mould always becomes more
dry and compressed, where it is out of the reach, of rain and snow; and
where it is exposed to rain, it is carried off to lower places, and
therefore increases and decreases according to the qualities of its
local situation. Moreover, vegetables it is known prosper the best
where mould is found. As the surface of our globe has been covered with
vegetables since the deluge, they must have had a mould to grow in ever
since that time; consequently it is highly probable, that there must
have been a mould covering the surface of our globe, ever since the
first origin. I should be led by some other confederations, to doubt of
the infallibility of this rule for the increase of mould. In Russia, on
this side the river Volga, are high and extensive plains, which have
been uncultivated ever since the deluge, for we know from history, that
the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, Chazars, and Mogols, were successively
the masters of these vast countries, and were altogether nomadic
nations, who lived without agriculture; the country has been without
wood since time immemorial, nor could there even spring up any wood
whatsoever, since its rambling possessors every spring set fire to the
old dry grass, in order to make room for the new grass, which in the
latter end of May, I found come up very near to my waist. And these
vast, desart plains, I saw every where covered with at lead two feet
mould; nay, in some places it amounted to four feet; this would give
according to the former rule of half an inch per Century, 4800 years,
in the first instance, and in the second, 9600 years, and therefore
shews that this rule for calculating the increase of mould, is very
precarious. The chemical analysis of plants, shews that they consist of
water, earth, acid, alkali, oil, and an inflammable principle,
independent of the last substance, and called by a late German chemist
the caustic: these substances must enter yearly the new plants, and
make their substance, and are as it were regenerated in these new
plants, after being set at liberty from the structure of the last
year’s plants by putrefaction, or by fire. Mould chemically examined,
has the same analogous parts. Acid and caustic are plentifully
contained in the common air, and may also easily be restored to the
mould, and thus circulate through a new system of plants. Water comes
likewise from rain and snow, out of our atmosphere: alkaline and oily
particles, or a kind of soap, are the only things wanting, which when
added with the former to any subtle earth, will make a good mould, and
these are produced by putrefaction or fire, from vegetable and animal
substances, and are the great promoters of vegetation.

But the great question is, from whence these various substances
necessary for vegetation originally came? To believe they are produced
from putrified vegetables is begging the question, and making a
circulus vitiosus in the argument. There is therefore no evasion; they
were certainly produced by the great Creator of the universe, and
endowed with such qualities, as make them capable of producing in
various mixtures new bodies; and when they are introduced by moisture,
into the first stamina of a plant, or a seed, they expand these
stamina, and constitute a new being, capable of affording food to the
animal creation. It is evident, Mr. Kalm hinted at the above-mentioned
opinion of the increase of mould, and this gave me an opportunity of
confirming his argument, and of stating fairly the great question oh
which agriculture, the most necessary branch of human arts depends. F.

[27] As the shells of oysters are a marine animal production, and their
cavities are full of particles of sea-water, the moisture of it flies
off, leaving behind its salt; when the shells are burnt, and the lime
is slacked, the salt mixes with the lime: and though the mortar of such
a lime grows ever so dry, the particles of salt immediately attract the
moisture of the air, and cause that dampness complained of here. F.

[28] Though Mr. Kalm has so carefully avoided peopling Europe with this
insect, yet Dr. Linnæus assures us in his Systema Naturæ, that the
southern countries of Europe are already infested with it; Scopoli
mentions it among his Insecta Carniolica p. 63. and Geoffroy among his
Parisian Insects, Vol. 1. p. 267. t. 4. f. 9. has given a fine figure
of it. F.

[29] Diss. de Noxa Insectorum, Amœn. Acad. Vol. 3. p. 347.

[30] In his Systema Naturæ, he calls it Bruchus Pisi, or the Pease
Beetle; and says that the Gracula Quiscula, or Purple daw of Catesby,
is the greatest destroyer of them, and though this bird has been
proscribed by the legislature of Pensylvania, New Jersey, and New
England as a maize-thief, they feel however the imprudence of
extirpating this bird; for a quantity of worms which formerly were
eaten by these birds destroy their meadows at present. F.

[31] If the pease were steeped before they are sown, in a lie of lime
water and some dissolved arsenic, the pupa or aurelia of the insect
would be killed. F.

[32] Mr. Miller describes this liquor in his Gardener’s Dictionary
under the article of Convolvulus, species the 17th. and 18th.

[33] This animal is probably the Sorex cristatus of Dr. Linnæus, who
says it is like the mole and lives in Pensylvania. F.

[34] The same is to be met with in Edwards’s Natural History of Birds,
page 38. tab. 38. F.

[35] There is a much lesser species of humming-bird, by Linnæus called
Trochilus minimus, being the least bird known; Sir Hans Sloane’s living
one, weighed only twenty grains, and Mr. Edwards’s dry one forty-five.
It is drawn in Edwards’s birds, t. 150, in its natural size, together
with its egg. F.

[36] The author seems to comprehend more by this word, than what it
commonly includes, for he describes it as a building, which contains
both a barn and stables. F.

[37] This kind of building is frequent in the north of Germany,
Holland, and Prussia, and therefore it is no wonder that it is employed
by people who, were used to them in their own country. F.

[38] Probably it is a stone marle; a blue and reddish species of this
kind is used with good success, in the county of Bamff in Scotland.

[39] Dr. Linnæus, in his Travels through Westrogothia, has given a
drawing of the machine by which woad is prepared, on the 128th. page.

[40] As there are no Jews in Sweden, Prof. Kalm was an utter stranger
to their manners and religious customs, and therefore relates them as a
kind of novelty. F.

[41] This has really happened by a greater union and exertion of power
from the colonies and the mother country; so that Canada has been
conquered and its possession has been confirmed to Great Britain in the
last peace. F.

[42] Of this animal and of the above-mentioned Racoon is a
representation given plate 2. both from original drawings; the German
and the Swedish edition of Prof. Kalm’s work being both without this
plate. F.

[43] Neither of these accounts appear to be satisfactory; and therefore
I am inclined to believe that these red foxes originally came over from
Asia, (most probably from Kamtchatka where this species is common, see
Miller’s Account of the Navigations of the Russians, &amp;c.) though in
remote times, and thus spread over North America. It is perhaps true
that the Indians never took notice of them till the Europeans were
settled among them; this, however, was because they never had occasion
to use their skins: but when there was a demand for these they began to
hunt them, and, as they had not been much accustomed to them before,
they esteemed them as a novelty. What gives additional confirmation to
this is, that when the Russians under Commodore Bering landed on the
western coast of America, they saw five red foxes which were quite
tame, and seemed not to be in the least afraid of men: now this might
very well have been the case if we suppose them to have been for many
generations in a place where no body disturbed them; but we cannot
account for it, if we imagine that they had been used to a country
where there were many inhabitants, or where they had been much hunted.
F.

[44] When Captain Amadas, the first Englishman that ever landed in
North America, set foot on shore (to use his own words) such a flocke
of Cranes (the most part white) arose under us with such a cry,
redoubled by many ecchoes, as if an armie of men had showted
alltogether.

[45] Properly shining blackbirds.

[46] What gives still more weight, to Mr. Kalm’s opinion of the Elk
being the Moose-deer, is the name Musu which the Algonkins give to the
elk, as Mr. Kalm himself observes in the sequel of his work; and this
circumstance is the more remarkable, as the Algonkins before the
Irokeese or five nations got so great a power in America, were the most
powerful nation in the northern part of this continent; in so much,
that though they be now reduced to an inconsiderable number, their
language is however a kind of universal language in North America; so
that there is no doubt, that the elk is the famous Moose-deer. F.

[47] It seems to be either the substance commonly called French Chalk,
or perhaps the Soap-rock, which is common in Cornwall near the Lizard
point, and which consists besides of some particles of talc, chiefly of
an earth like magnesia, which latter with acid of vitriol, yields an
earthy vitriolic, salt, or Epsom salt. F.

[48] Amiantus (Asbestus) fibrosus, fibris separabilibus flexilibus
tenacibus, Linn. Syst. nat. p. 55.

Amiantus fibris mollibus parallelis facile separabilibus, Wall. Min.
140.

Mountain Flax, Linum montanum, Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 17. F.

[49] It has been observed, that only such squirrels and birds as have
their nests near the place where such snakes come to, make this pitiful
noise, and are so busy in running up and down the tree and the
neighbouring branches, in order to draw off the attention of the snake
from their brood, and often they come so very near in order to fly away
again, that being within reach of the snakes, they are at last bit,
poisoned and devoured; and this will, I believe, perfectly account for
the powers of fascinating birds and small creatures in the snakes. F.

[50] As Catesby and Edwards have both represented the flying Squirrel
in a sitting attitude, I have given here, plate I. a figure of one with
the expanded membrane, and joined to it on the same plate, a more
accurate figure of the ground Squirrel.

It is not yet made out with certainty, whether the American flying
squirrel, and that found in Finland and in the north of Europe and
Asia, be the same animal. The American kind has a flat pennated tail,
but the European kind a round one, which affords a very distinguishing
character. F.

[51] See for this opinion the scarce and curious work intitled, Torfæi
historia Vinlandiæ antiquæ seu partis Americæ septentrionalis. Hafniæ
1715. 4to. F.

[52] This experiment with the silver, supposes that the broth of the
fish would be so strong as to act as a solvent upon the silver; but
there may be poisons, which would not affect the silver, and however
prove fatal to men; the surest way therefore would be to suppress that
appetite, which may become fatal not only to a few men of the crew, but
also endanger the whole ship, by the loss of necessary hands. F.














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