The Project Gutenberg eBook of A practical treatise on coach-building historical and descriptive
    
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.

Title: A practical treatise on coach-building historical and descriptive
        Containing full information of the various trades and processes involved, with hints on the proper keeping of carriages, &c.

Author: James W. Burgess

Release date: November 3, 2023 [eBook #72016]

Language: English

Original publication: United Kingdom: Crosby Lockwood and Co

Credits: deaurider, A. Marshall and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON COACH-BUILDING HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ***

  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.

  Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.

  Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been
  placed at the end of the chapter.

  A superscript is denoted by ^x or ^{xx}, for example und^r or 36^{th}.

  Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.




                      _A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON_

                            COACH-BUILDING

                      HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE

                              CONTAINING

              FULL INFORMATION OF THE VARIOUS TRADES AND
                PROCESSES INVOLVED, WITH HINTS ON THE
                   PROPER KEEPING OF CARRIAGES, &c.

                   _WITH FIFTY-SEVEN ILLUSTRATIONS_

                         BY JAMES W. BURGESS

                     [Illustration: Capio Lumen]

                                LONDON
                       CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO.
               7, STATIONERS’ HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL
                                 1881

                       [_All rights reserved_]




                               LONDON:

              PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED,
                              CITY ROAD.




                              PREFACE.


It is singular that such an important industry as coach-building
should have received such slight attention from writers either at
home or abroad; yet such is the case, the last book dealing in any
way exhaustively with the trade having been published some fifty
years ago. The manufacturers themselves have doubtless very copious
notes, which, if printed, would make several large volumes; but they
do not publish the result of their experience to the world, and
consequently the general public, and more particularly apprentices
and others whose occupations or amusements may be in any way
connected with the trade, have no means of gaining an insight into
this branch of industrial art.

It is hoped that this book will supply, to some extent at least,
this deficiency. Its object is general utility rather than technical
instructions on minor details. The principles on which carriages
ought to be constructed, rather than the arbitrary proportions of
parts, are what the author has sought to make clear.

From an antiquarian point of view the history of carriages is very
interesting. In the first chapter the gradual development of vehicles
and their parts from the first rude forms of raft and sledge, down to
the shapes with which we are now familiar, has been carefully dealt
with, and all matters of interest in connection therewith have been
added.

In dealing with the practical part of the business, the preliminary
operations of the carriage designer and draughtsman are first
considered, and directions given how to make the drawing of a
proposed vehicle; from whence the reader is taken into the workshop,
where he is introduced to the points which usually have to be
considered before commencing the construction of a vehicle, and
instructions given as to the preparation of the full-sized working
draughts or drawings. The component parts of body and carriage
are then particularised, and notes added to assist in their being
properly understood. A glance is given at the various materials
used, and then the most important parts of the vehicle are dealt
with separately, as wheels, axles, springs, &c., both the theory
and manufacture of each part being given, in order to make clear
the work it has to perform in operation, and the means of obviating
difficulties.

In the chapter devoted to the painting department a slight sketch has
been given of the theory of colour, in order that the unscientific
reader may understand the harmonies and contrasts of colour, which
are so important to the successful conduct of this branch. The
materials and implements that the painter uses are described, and the
vehicle followed through the successive stages of priming, painting,
colouring, and varnishing. In addition to this a chapter is given on
“Ornamental Painting” _i.e._ painting monograms, crests, and coats of
arms on the carriage panels.

In the chapter “General Observations on the Trade” several
interesting facts and statistics have been dealt with; such as the
present position of carriage artisans; application of machinery; the
coach trade in America and in India; also the theory of lengthening
or shortening the carriage parts.

A chapter on “Invention” has been added, which it is trusted may
prove of value. As a concluding chapter, some hints on the proper
treatment of carriages by their private owners have been given, which
will no doubt be useful to the coach-builder.

What few authorities there are on the subject have been carefully
consulted by the author, with a view to making the book as accurate
and reliable as possible.

If any member of the trade desires to make suggestions as to
improvement in any of the processes given, his communication,
addressed to the author (care of the publishers), will be carefully
considered in connection with subsequent editions of the work.

                                                              J. W. B.

  LONDON, _April_, 1881.




                              CONTENTS.


                                                                  PAGE

  CHAPTER I.—GENERAL HISTORY                                         1

  CHAPTER II.—PREPARATION OF THE DESIGN AND SETTING
      OUT THE FULL-SIZED DRAUGHT                                    22

  CHAPTER III.—VARIOUS MATERIALS USED IN COACH-BUILDING             29

  CHAPTER IV.—POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE COMMENCING
      THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.—COMPONENT PARTS
      OF THE BODY.—SMITH’S WORK.—GLUE                               35

  CHAPTER V.—PARTS COMPOSING THE UNDER-CARRIAGE.—FRAMING
      THEM TOGETHER.—WROUGHT-IRON PERCHES.—BRAKES                   48

  CHAPTER VI.—WHEELS                                                54

  CHAPTER VII.—AXLES                                                70

  CHAPTER VIII.—SPRINGS                                             82

  CHAPTER IX.—WHEEL-PLATES AND FORE-CARRIAGES                       90

  CHAPTER X.—IRON AND METAL-WORK GENERALLY.—LAMPS.—PRINCIPLES
      OF COMBUSTION                                                 96

  CHAPTER XI.—PAINTING                                             102

  CHAPTER XII.—ORNAMENTAL PAINTING                                 123

  CHAPTER XIII.—LINING AND TRIMMING                                132

  CHAPTER XIV.—GENERAL REMARKS ON THE COACH-BUILDING
      TRADE                                                        142

  CHAPTER XV.—INVENTION                                            168

  CHAPTER XVI.—REMARKS ON KEEPING CARRIAGES                        178




                         A PRACTICAL TREATISE

                                  ON

                           COACH-BUILDING.




                             CHAPTER I.

  GENERAL HISTORY.

The origin of the word coach has not yet been accurately determined.
Menage says it is taken from the Latin _vehiculum_, which most
people will take the liberty of doubting; Wachten, from the German
_kutten_, to cover; Lye, from the Belgic _koetsen_, to lie along,
or, as it really means, a couch or chair; it has also been tried to
prove that the word is of Hungarian origin, and that it took its
name from _Kotsee_, the old name of the province of Wiesellung,
where various kinds of carriages were made; and in Beckmann’s
“History of Inventions” it is mentioned that “when the Archbishop
received certain intelligence that the Turks had entered Hungary,
not contented with informing the king by letter, he speedily got
into one of those light carriages of the place they call _kotcze_,
and hastened to his majesty.” This, in addition to the fact that
some years previously the King of Hungary presented to the Queen of
Bohemia a vehicle that excited great wonder and admiration, by reason
of its trembling (_branlant_), showing clearly that it must have been
suspended, is strongly in favour of the Hungarian coachmakers; but
we must leave it to the philologists to determine the exact truth,
for what with the _caroche_ of France, the _caroce_ of Italy, the
_carri-coche_ of Spain, and our own coach, the head gets somewhat
bewildered, and is fain to take refuge in the simple _carruca_ of
ancient Rome, from which these appellations most probably had their
rise. In any case the honour must be a divided one, as the _caretta_,
_chare_, car, _charat_, &c., must have been the earliest forms of
the derivation, as such were the names given to the first vehicles;
later, we have the Hungarian _kotcze_, the German _kutsche_, &c., and
adding both form and name to what had gone before, produced a mixed
vehicle with a mixed appellation. Dr. Johnson defines coach as a
“little carriage.” The _large_ carriage that he had in his mind’s eye
at the time must have been a marvellous vehicle.

The progress of the art of coach-making, like the progress of
most inventions and discoveries, has been rather slow, we may say
remarkably slow; sometimes it made a sudden start, but a reaction
in the other direction generally settled it before much advance had
been made; but seeing that the early portions of the Old Testament
contain references to wheel carriages, it does seem rather strange
that perfection should take so long to arrive at. This may be partly
accounted for by the fact that the nations of the earth were always
at war with one another, and consequently had no time to foster
inventive power. And this has unfortunately been the case until
comparatively recent times.

The first land carriages were doubtless very primitive contrivances.
Though the “chariot” and the “waggon” are mentioned in Genesis, no
description is given of their construction. Joseph rode in the second
chariot of Pharaoh as a mark of great honour and dignity. “Waggons”
were dispatched from the court of Egypt to convey thither the wives
and little ones of the family of Jacob. From this, as well as the
fact of the brethren of Joseph bearing their corn away on asses, we
may infer that wheel carriages, even of the most simple construction,
were not in general use at this time. It is very probable that the
common vehicle of the period was an embryo sledge, drawn by man or
beast along the ground.

The Bible and the hieroglyphics on the various ruins of ancient Egypt
furnish us with the earliest authentic records. In the case of Egypt
this is particularly valuable to us, because of the great degree of
culture arrived at in the civilised arts. In fact it is the chief
country of which we have any record of the progress of these arts,
and though not actually established, it is extremely probable that to
the Egyptians we owe the invention, or at least the introduction of
the wheel. These people were early engaged in the erection of large
buildings and monuments, of which the pyramids and sphinxes are such
striking examples; and in order to convey the enormous blocks of
stone and granite to their ultimate destination, the roller would be
the first thing to suggest itself as a means of facilitating transit.
The next step would be the formation of a truck, to which these
rollers could be attached, and on which could be placed the materials
to be moved. Progression with a contrivance of this kind would
necessarily be rather slow, but it would soon become apparent that if
a larger roller were used the motion could be accelerated. The next
improvement would be an endeavour to lighten the rollers by sawing
them into thick slices, and connecting them by a horizontal roller
of smaller dimensions, giving a rude representation of a wheel and
axle. The agricultural carts used by the peasantry of Chili, in South
America, were made in this fashion until very recently. The further
lightening of these cars would follow almost as a matter of course,
by cutting the slices of the trunk to form the wheel, thinner, and
further by cutting away portions of this slice, forming spokes. The
wheel having arrived at this stage of perfection, the axle would
call for a little attention. Up till the present, they would be fixed
firmly to the wheels and revolve with them. This arrangement would
cause great inconvenience in turning, for one wheel would revolve
more rapidly than the other, by reason of the circle described by one
wheel in turning round being greater than that of the other, and the
vehicle would be liable to overturn. The next step was to arrange
that the wheels could revolve independently of the axle. This being
done, we have the wheel, in its principles, the same as at present.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Egyptian Chariot. Fig. 2.—Egyptian Chariot.]

The paintings and sculptures upon the walls of the temples and tombs
of Egypt show that wheeled carriages were in use in that country
at an early period (Figs. 1 and 2). In the Bible they are usually
translated “chariot.” They are of great interest to us, as they
formed the chief means of conveying man for 2,000 years before
Christ, and were more or less the type of all the other vehicles of
the ancient world. We find certain words used in describing them,
both by Homer, who lived 1,000 years B.C., and by Moses, who lived at
least 500 years earlier; and these words are the technical terms in
use at the present day, such as axles, wheels, naves, tyres, spokes,
&c. It is reasonable to infer from this, that the art to which these
terms apply must have existed prior to the writers’ description; so
that any doubt as to the correctness of the Egyptian sculptures must
be dispelled by the references of the above authors. In the fifth
book of the Iliad “The awful Juno led out the golden-bitted horses,
whilst Hebe fitted the whirling wheels on the iron axle of the swift
chariot. The wheels had each eight brazen spokes, the felloes were of
gold, secured with brazen tyres all round, admirable to the sight.
The seat was of gold hung by silver cords, the beam or pole was of
silver, at the end of which were hung the golden yoke and the golden
reins.”

[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Roman Chariot.]

The car was greatly used by the Romans, being adopted from the one
used by the Etrurians (Fig. 3), a neighbouring country on the Italian
peninsula. These latter people were traditionally the first to place
a hood or awning over the open two-wheeled car, and they showed great
taste in decorating their vehicles in the manner familiar to us by
the remains of their pottery. A very fine copy of one of the Roman
cars is in the museum at South Kensington, cast from the original in
the Vatican.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Scythian Chariot.]

Herodotus (450 B.C.) mentions that the Scythians used a vehicle which
consisted of a rough platform upon wheels, on which was placed a
covering like a beehive, composed of basket work and covered with
skins. When they pitched anywhere these huts were taken off, and
served them as dwellings in lieu of tents. Fig. 4 shows one of their
chariots.

The war chariots used by the Persians were much larger than those
used by contemporary nations. The idea seems to have been to form a
sort of turret on the car to protect the warriors in action. These
vehicles were provided with curved blades, like scythes, which
projected from the axletrees, for the purpose of maiming the enemy as
they drove through them.

At the period of the invasion of this country by the Romans, a car
or chariot seems to have been in use which they had not met with
before. It was larger than the Roman car, and possessed a seat, from
which feature it was called _essedum_. It was doubtless an improved
vehicle of its kind, for Cicero, writing to a friend in Britain, says
“that there appeared little worth bringing away from Britain except
the chariots, of which he wished his friend to bring him one as a
pattern.”

Sir William Gell, in his work on Pompeii, which was destroyed A.D.
79, mentions that three wheels had been dug out of the ruins in
his day, very much like our modern wheels—a little dished, and 4
feet 3 inches high, with ten spokes rather thicker at each end
than in the middle. He also gives an illustration of a cart used
for the conveyance of wine in a large skin or leather bag; it is a
four-wheeled cart, with an arch in the centre for the front wheel to
turn under. The pole appears to end in a fork, and to be attached to
the axle bed.

On the decline of the Roman power, many of the arts of civilisation
which they had been instrumental in forwarding fell into disuse. The
skilled artisans died and left no successors, there being no demand
for them. This will account for no mention being made of carriages or
chariots for some centuries. Of course there were various primitive
contrivances in use to which the name of cart was given, but the
great and wealthy moved about the cities or travelled on horseback,
or if they were incapable of this, they used litters carried by men
or horses. The great bar to the general adoption of wheeled carriages
was undoubtedly the very bad state of the roads.

An evident improvement in construction was made by the Saxons. In the
Cotton Library there is a valuable illuminated manuscript, supposed
to be the work of Elfricus, Abbot of Malmesbury. The subject is a
commentary on the Books of Genesis and Exodus, with accompanying
illustrations. In one of these is represented the first approach to a
slung carriage; and it may be interesting to the lovers of historical
coincidence that it is given in an illustration of the meeting of
Joseph and Jacob, and in that part of the Bible which first makes
mention of vehicular conveyance. The chariot in which Joseph is
seated is a kind of hammock (most probably made of leather, which
was much used by the Anglo-Saxons), suspended by iron hooks from
a framework of wood. It moves upon four wheels, the construction
of which is not clear, owing to the decorative license taken with
them by the artist. The father of Joseph is placed in a cart, which
we doubt not, from its extreme simplicity, is a faithful type of
those of the time. This proves the illuminator to have been true to
his subject and the custom of the period in which he lived, as the
chariot was monopolised by the great men, while the people rode in
carts.

With the Normans came the horse litter, a native originally of
Bithynia, and from thence introduced into Rome, where it is still
used by the Pope on state occasions, and also among the mountain
passes of Sicily, as well as in Spain and Portugal. Malmesbury
records that the dead body of Rufus was placed upon a _rheda
caballaria_, a kind of horse litter. King John, in his last illness,
was conveyed from the Abbey of Swinstead _in lectica equestre_. These
were for several succeeding reigns the only carriages in use for
persons of distinction. Froissart writes of Isabel, the second wife
of Richard II., as “La june Royne d’Angleterre en une litieré moult
riche qui etoit ordonèe pour elle.” These litters were seldom used
except on state occasions. When Margaret, daughter of Henry II., went
into Scotland, she is described as journeying on a “faire palfrey,”
but after her was conveyed by two footmen “one very riche litere,
borne by two faire coursers vary nobly drest; in which litere the
sayd queene was borne in the intryng of the good towns or otherwise
to her good playsher.”

Carriages proper were first introduced on the continent. Italy,
France, Spain, and Germany contend with each other for the honour
of the first introduction. The earliest record we have is on the
authority of Beckmann, who says that, when at the close of the
thirteenth century Charles of Anjou entered Naples, his queen rode
in a _caretta_, the outside and inside of which were covered with
sky-blue velvet interspersed with golden lilies.

The English were not long before they adopted this new innovation. In
an early English poem called the “Squyr of Low Degree,” supposed to
be before the time of Chaucer, the father of the Princess of Hungary
thus makes promise:—

      “To-morrow ye shall on hunting fare,
       And ride my daughter in a _chare_.
       It shall be covered with velvet red,
       And cloths of fine gold all about your head,
       With damask white and azure blue,
       Well diapered with lilies new:
       Your pomelles shall be ended with gold,
       Your chains enamelled many a fold.”

The pomelles were doubtless the handles to the rods affixed towards
the roof of the “chariette,” and were for the purpose of holding by
when deep ruts or obstacles in the roads caused an unusual jerk in
the vehicle.

On the continent, there seems to have been a great deal of opposition
to the use of carriages. In 1294, Philip, King of France, issued an
ordinance prohibiting the citizens’ wives the use of cars or chars;
and later on, Pope Pius IV. exhorted his cardinals and bishops not to
ride in coaches, according to the fashion of the time, but to leave
such things to women; and it really was thought _infra dig._ for a
man to travel other than on horseback. Even his Holiness the Pope
rode upon a grey horse; though to indemnify him for the exertion, his
horse was led, and his stirrup held by kings and emperors.

These exhortations had about the same effect as James I.’s
“Counterblast to Tobacco;” they created an increased demand, and the
people showed their sense in preferring the ease that does no injury
to the self-denial that does no good, in spite of the opposition of
their superiors.

The first coach made in England was for the Earl of Rutland, in 1555,
and Walter Rippon was the builder. He afterwards made one for Queen
Mary. Stow’s “Summerie of the English Chronicle” is the authority
upon which this statement is made.

In a postscript to the life of Thomas Parr, written by Taylor, the
Water Poet (and a mortal enemy to land carriages), we find the
following note: “He (Parr) was eighty-one years old before there was
any coach in England (Parr was born in Edward IV.’s reign in 1483);
for the first ever seen here was brought out of the Netherlands by
one William Boonen, a Dutchman, who gave a coach to Queen Elizabeth,
for she had been seven years a queen before she had any coach; since
when they have increased with a mischief, and ruined all the best
housekeeping, to the undoing of the watermen, by the multitudes
of Hackney coaches. But they never swarmed so much to pester the
streets as they do now till the year 1605; and then was the
gunpowder treason hatched, and at that time did the coaches breed and
multiply.” Taylor is to be thanked, not only for his information,
but for his capital though unconscious burlesque upon those fancied
philosophers who talk of cause and effect, where events, because
they happen in sequence, are made to depend one on the other, when
the fact of their being two things apart makes them independent
existences.

We have not space to dwell upon these old specimens at length. Queen
Elizabeth’s coach is called by an old author “a moving temple.” It
had doors all round, so that when the people desired, and the virgin
queen was agreeable, they might feast their eyes on the beauty of its
trimming or linings.

The following entry in Sir William Dugdale’s diary may be
interesting: “1681. Payd to Mr. Meares, a coachmaker in St. Martin’s
Lane, for a little chariot w^{ch} I then sent into the country, £23
13s. 0d., and for a cover of canvas £01 00s. 00d.: also for harness
for two horses £04 00s. 00d.”

The opposition on the part of the watermen to the introduction of
coaches assumed rather serious proportions, more especially as the
populace sided with them; to such a height did the antagonism run
that a movement was made to introduce a Bill into Parliament to
prevent the increase of coaches; the apology for its introduction
being, that in war time it would be a matter of great difficulty
to mount the troops if so many horses were monopolised for these
coaches. Luckily, however, it came to nothing, and the antipathy
gradually died out.

Coaches and vehicles of all descriptions now became general, and
in 1635 a patent was granted to Sir Saunders Duncombe for the
introduction of sedans; their purpose being “to interfere with the
too frequent use of coaches, to the hindrance of the carts and
carriages employed in the necessary provision of the city and
suburbs.” A rivalry now sprung up between coach and sedan, and gave
rise to a humorous tract, in which they hold a colloquy as to which
should take precedence, a brewer’s cart being appointed umpire.

The coaches at this period were fearfully and wonderfully made. There
are several examples of them scattered about in the various museums.
The people who used them at this time had no great ideas of them, for
so formidable an affair was the undertaking of a journey reckoned,
that even from Birmingham to London a departure was the signal for
making a will, followed by a solemn farewell of wife, children, and
household!

Towards the end of the seventeenth century improvements began to
take place. In Wood’s diary mention is made of a machine called the
“Flying Coach,” which performed the journey between Oxford and London
in thirteen hours! This was express rate for that age, especially as
there was some talk of making a law to limit the ground covered by a
coach to thirty miles a day in summer, and twenty-five miles a day
in winter. Oh, those good old times! The outcry lessened, and the
imperfect vehicles and bad roads were left to passengers unmolested.
What the latter were may be imagined from the fact that, when Charles
III. of Spain visited England, and Prince George of Denmark went out
to meet him, both princes were so impeded by the badness of the roads
that their carriages were obliged to be borne on the shoulders of the
peasantry, and they were six hours in performing the last nine miles
of their journey.

In the eighteenth century improvements were made in the construction
of coaches, but they were still heavy lumbering contrivances, so that
little or no progress was made in the rate at which they travelled.
Even so late as 1760 a journey from Edinburgh to London occupied
eighteen days, a part of the roads being only accessible by pack
horses. There is a very good specimen of the vehicle of the early
part of the eighteenth century in the South Kensington Museum,
belonging to the Earl of Darnley’s family, and is well worthy of
study as being one of the lightest examples known of this period.

In the Museum of South Kensington is also an excellent example of the
fully developed coach of 1790. It is a very massive-looking affair,
and belonged to the Lord Chancellor of Ireland; it looks very much
like a faded edition of the City state coach now, though when new it
doubtless had a very good appearance. It consists of a very large
body, suspended from upright or whip springs by means of leather
braces; the standing pillars slope outwards, making the sides longer
at the roof than at the elbow line. The wheels are of good height,
and the carriage part is very massively constructed, the upper part
being finished off with scroll ironwork, and on this in the front
the coachman’s hammercloth is raised. The panels are painted with
landscapes, &c., by Hamilton, R.A., and no doubt altogether it cost a
deal of money.

Vehicles now began to assume that variety of shape and form of which
we have in our own time so many specimens. There were Landaus,
introduced from a town of that name in Germany; these were, like
the coaches, only made to open in the centre of the roof just as
they do now, but instead of the covering falling into a horizontal
line it only fell back to an angle of 45 degrees, and this pattern
was maintained for a number of years. Landaulets were chariots made
to open. Generally speaking, the difference between a coach and a
chariot was that the former had two seats for the accommodation
of passengers, and the latter but one, and in appearance was like
a coach cut in half. Then came phaetons, barouches, sociables,
curricles, gigs, and whiskies, which, in their general form and
attributes, were similar to the vehicles of the present day which
bear these names. In those days fast driving was all the “go,” and
young men vied with each other in driving the loftiest and most
dangerous gigs and phaetons. Contemporary literature teemed with
romantic tales of spills and hairbreadth ’scapes from these vehicles,
and yet dilated on the fearful pleasure there was in driving them.

The larger wheeled vehicles were hung upon framed carriages, with
whip springs behind and elbow springs in front, like the gentlemen’s
cabriolets of the present day. When drawn by two horses they were
called curricles, or by one horse, chaises. There was a little
variation in the shape of the body, viz. the full curricle pattern
and the half curricle, with or without a boot, similar to a Tilbury
or a gig body. The wheels were 4 feet 3 inches to 5 feet in height.
Lancewood was then used for shafts.

It is at the beginning of the nineteenth century that real progress
is to be found in coaches and other carriages. In 1804, Mr. Obadiah
Elliott, a coachmaker of Lambeth, patented a plan for hanging
vehicles upon elliptic springs, thus doing away with the heavy perch,
as the longitudinal timber or iron connecting the hind-carriage
with the fore carriage is called. Perches are still used, but are
chiefly confined to coaches proper, or those hung upon C springs.
Elliott also considerably lightened the carriage part of the vehicles
he turned out. This was the first step to a grand revolution in
the manufacture of carriages, which was to affect every variety of
vehicle, great or small. Elliott’s enterprise was rewarded by the
gold medal of the Society of Arts, and by his business becoming a
very prosperous one, for the public were not slow in discovering the
advantages arising from great lightness in vehicles.

A print, published in 1816, shows a landaulet hung on elliptic
springs, four in number, with a square boot framed to the body, and
the driving seat supported on ironwork high above the boot. Behind
there is a footboard supported on the pump-handles. The distance
between the axletrees is very short, only 6 feet 6 inches from centre
to centre. The body is rather small, and the wheels are 3 feet 8
inches and 4 feet 8 inches high respectively, and the bottom of the
body is 3 feet 6 inches above the ground. The span or opening of the
springs is 10 inches.

In 1814 there were 23,400 four-wheeled vehicles paying duty to
Government, 27,300 two-wheeled, and 18,500 tax-carts in Great
Britain, showing a total of 69,200 vehicles. The later returns will
show how much a reduction in the duties and the use of elliptic
springs have promoted the increase of vehicles of all kinds.

A vehicle much in fashion at this period was the curricle, which
had been in use for some time in Italy, where it was suspended from
leather braces. Springs were added by the French, and, on its being
introduced here, the English altered the shape, giving the back a
graceful ogee curve, improved the hood, and added a spring bar across
the horses’ backs. It was a vehicle of easy draught, and could be
driven at great speed. Unfortunately it was rather dangerous if the
horse shied or stumbled, and this tended to reduce the demand for
it, and it was gradually superseded by the cabriolet, though Charles
Dickens used one as soon as he could afford it, and Count D’Orsay had
one made as late as 1836.

The vehicle called the briska, or britchka, was introduced about 1818
from Austria. It was hung both upon C springs and elliptic springs,
and was made in various sizes for different requirements. It was
nearly straight along the bottom. The hind panel was ogee shaped, and
the front terminated in a square boot. There was a rumble behind, and
the back seat was fitted with a hood which could be raised or lowered
at pleasure, and the knees were covered by a folding knee flap. This
was an inconvenient vehicle for our climate, as only half the number
could be sheltered in wet weather that could be accommodated in dry.
It was very fashionable for a time, but died out about 1840.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.—Stanhope.]

The “Stanhope” takes its name from being first built to the order and
under the superintendence of the Hon. Fitzroy Stanhope, by Tilbury,
the builder of the vehicle bearing that name. It was shaped like
the old ribbed gig, but was hung upon four springs, two of which
were bolted between the shaft and axle, and the other two crossways,
parallel to the axle at either end of the body, and shackled to the
side springs. Stanhopes are an easy kind of vehicle, and do not rock
so much as other gigs behind a rough-trotting horse. At the same time
they are rather heavy, owing to the large amount of iron plating used
to strengthen the shafts, &c.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Tilbury.]

The “Tilbury” was very much like the Stanhope, but had no boot,
and like it was heavily plated with iron. It was hung by two elbow
springs in front, with leather braces to the shafts or front cross
bar, and behind by two elbow springs passing from beneath the seat
to a cross spring raised to the level of the back rail of the body
by three straight irons from the hind part of the cross bar. Later,
two more springs were added between the axletree and the shafts,
by scroll irons. The Tilbury was a very good-looking and durable
vehicle, but its weight took away the public favour, and it went out
of fashion about 1850. It was, however, adopted with great success by
Italy and other continental countries, where the roads are bad, and
solidity of construction is the first consideration.

Dog-carts and Tandem-carts are too well known to need description.
The former were so called from their being used for the conveyance
of sporting dogs, such as greyhounds or pointers, and the slats or
louvre arrangement of the sides was for the purpose of admitting air
to the animals; though scarcely ever used for this purpose now, the
original plan has been pretty closely adhered to, except that the
boot is considerably reduced and made to harmonise more with the
other parts.

Some of the greatest improvements in the shape and style of various
vehicles were effected by a celebrated maker named Samuel Hobson,
who remodelled and improved pretty nearly every vehicle which came
under his hands. He particularly directed his attention to the true
proportion of parts, and artistic form of carriages. He lowered the
bodies, and lengthened the under or “carriage” part. The curves and
sweeps also received due attention. In fact, he carefully studied
those “trifles” (as Michael Angelo’s friend would have termed them)
on which depended the success of the production as a work of art.
Imitation being the sincerest form of flattery, the other coachmakers
soon showed their sense by copying his best ideas, though, to give
these other coachmakers their due, they greatly assisted Mr. Hobson
with suggestions for improvements, and as a reward availed themselves
of his superior talent for working on these ideas.

As our interior trade and manufactures increased, the custom arose of
sending commercial travellers throughout England to call attention
to the various goods, and it was found very convenient to send these
travellers in light vehicles which could convey samples of the
various articles. This led to a very great increase in the number of
gigs; and about 1830 one coach factory of London supplied several
hundreds of these vehicles to travellers at annual rentals. And
though on the introduction of the railway system long journeys by
road were unnecessary, these gigs were found of great use in town and
suburban journeys, and in London they may be seen by hundreds daily,
and they are scarcely used by any one else but commercial travellers.
They are too familiar to need detailed description.

In 1810 a duty was levied by Government upon vehicles for sale. It
was repealed in 1825, but the returns give the number of vehicles
built for private use in 1814 as 3,636, and in 1824 as 5,143,
whilst the number of carriages in use in 1824 had grown to 25,000
four-wheeled, and 36,000 two-wheeled, besides 15,000 tax-carts; an
increase since 1814 of 20,000 vehicles.

In 1824 there was built for George IV. a low phaeton, called a pony
phaeton, which has since become very common, and has undergone but
very little change from the original. It was a cab shape, half-caned,
with a skeleton bottom side hung upon four elliptical springs, with
crane ironwork back and front. It was drawn by two ponies; the wheels
were only 21 and 33 inches high.

A carriage had been introduced from Germany, called a droitska or
droskey—an open carriage with a hood, on a perch, and suspended from
C springs. The peculiarity was, that the body was hung very near the
perch, so that the seat was only 12 inches above the hind axletree,
and the place for the legs was on either side of the perch. The chief
merits of this vehicle consisted in its lightness as compared with
barouches and briskas, and its shortness.

The cab phaeton was invented by Mr. Davies, of Albany Street, about
1835; it consisted of a cab body with a hood, hung upon four elliptic
springs, and a low driving seat and dasher, for one horse. It met
with great success and was soon in general use. It was introduced on
the continent, where it became known under the name of “Milord,” and
became the common hack carriage, after which it went out of fashion
with the upper circles. It has, however, been recently revived under
the name of “Victoria.” The Prince of Wales and Baron Rothschild set
the fashion by using Victorias about 1869, and it really is a very
elegant and useful vehicle.

In 1839 the first Brougham was built by Mr. Robinson, of Mount
Street, for Lord Brougham, since when this has become the most
common and the most fashionable vehicle in use. The size of the
first brougham was in its chief dimensions similar to those now
manufactured; it was hung on elliptic springs in front, and five
springs behind. Coachmakers seemed to have lavished the greatest care
and attention on these vehicles, in order to turn out the lightest,
and at the same time the most artistic contrivance, and great success
has attended their efforts.

The foregoing is a brief history of vehicular conveyances from the
earliest times to the present. During the last ten or fifteen years
many further improvements have been added, tending to produce more
perfect vehicles in every respect; but these improvements have been
more in matters of detail than those at the commencement of the
century, and hence are more likely to escape ordinary observation;
but the critical eye will soon discover these changes, and marvel at
the short space of time in which the _real_ work has been done.

A glance at public carriages may not be out of place. Hackney coaches
were first used in England in 1605. These were similar to the coaches
used by fashionable people, but they did not ply for hire in the
streets, but remained at the hiring yards until they were wanted.
Their number soon increased, owing to there being a greater number
of persons who wished to hire than could afford to keep a conveyance
of their own. In 1635 the number was limited to fifty, but in spite
of the opposition of the King they continued to increase in number,
and in 1640 there were 300 in London. In Paris they were introduced
by Nicholas Sauvage, who lived in a street at the sign of St. Fiacre,
and from this circumstance hackney carriages are called “fiacres” in
France. In 1772 the hire of a fiacre in Paris was one shilling for
the first hour and tenpence for the second. There were 400 hackney
coaches in London in 1662, and the Government then levied a yearly
duty of £5 each upon them. In spite of this their number had in 1694
increased to 700, a substantial proof of their usefulness.

In 1703 a stage coach performed the journey from London to
Portsmouth, when the roads were good, in fourteen hours. From this
time there was a gradual increase in the number and destinations of
stage coaches.

In 1755 stage coaches are described as being covered with dull black
leather, studded with broad-headed nails by way of ornament, and oval
windows in the quarters, with the frames painted red. On the panels
the destination of the coach was displayed in bold characters. The
roof rose in a high curve with a rail round it. The coachman and
guard sat in front upon a high narrow boot, sometimes garnished with
a hammercloth ornamented with a deep fringe. Behind was an immense
basket supported by iron bars, in which passengers were carried at
a cheaper rate than in other parts of the vehicle. The wheels were
painted red. The coach was usually drawn by three horses, on the
first of which a postillion rode, dressed in green and gold, and with
a cocked hat. This machine groaned and creaked as it went along, with
every tug the horses gave, though the ordinary speed was somewhere
about four miles an hour.

One hundred years ago news and letters travelled very slowly, the
post-boys to whom the letter bags were intrusted progressing at the
rate of three and a half miles an hour! In 1784 a proposal was laid
before Government by Mr. John Palmer, the originator of mail coaches,
to run quicker vehicles, though at much dearer rates of postage.
This scheme was at first opposed by Parliament, but after a struggle
of some two years, Palmer’s coaches were adopted for the conveyance
of the mails, though the rate at which these travelled was only six
miles an hour for a long time after their introduction.

A great impetus was given to the production of better forms of stage
coaches by gentlemen taking to drive them as an amusement, and two
clubs were soon formed of noblemen and gentlemen who took an interest
in four-in-hand driving and in vehicles in general. Several clubs of
this kind are now flourishing to encourage manly sport, and with the
capacity to promote improvements in the form of the “drag,” as it is
now called.

It is to an architect that we owe the invention of the Hansom cab.
The safety consisted in the arrangement of the framework at the
nearest part to the ground, so as to prevent an upset if the cab
tilted up or down. The inventor was Mr. Hansom, the architect of the
Birmingham Town Hall. Numberless improvements have been made on this
idea, but the leading principles are the same.

In 1829 the first omnibus was started in London by Mr. Shillibeer,
who some time previously had been a coachmaker in Paris. It was drawn
by three horses, and carried twenty-two passengers, all inside.
The fare was a shilling from the “Yorkshire Stingo,” in Marylebone
Road, to the Bank. This vehicle was found too large for the streets
of London, so a smaller one was started, drawn by two horses and
carrying twelve passengers inside. In 1849 an outside seat was added
along the centre of the roof, and by 1857 the omnibus had become
pretty nearly the same form as we now know it. Our present omnibus is
probably the lightest vehicle of its kind for carrying such a large
number of passengers. Its average weight is about 25 cwt. The London
General Omnibus Company have, on an average, 626 omnibuses running
on week-days, and 6,935 horses to work them. They build their own
vehicles, and each runs about sixty miles a day, at a speed of about
six miles an hour, and nearly all are supplied with brake retarders,
worked by the foot, which effect a great saving in the strain put
upon the horses in stopping.




                             CHAPTER II.

  PREPARATION OF THE DESIGN AND SETTING OUT THE FULL-SIZED DRAUGHT.

In coach-building, as in building construction, the first thing to
be done is to prepare a design of the vehicle proposed to be built
according to the requirements of the customer. A scale of one inch to
a foot is a very good one for the purpose, though the scale drawings
are more often made to a scale of one and a half or two inches to a
foot. These drawings (or draughts as they are technically termed),
are prepared by specially trained draughtsmen, and it requires no
mean skill to produce, on a small scale, a pictorial representation
of the future vehicle, truly proportioned in all its parts, and a
delicacy of touch in order that the parts may not look coarse. These
drawings, if well made (and they generally are), give a very accurate
picture of the carriage, and a purchaser is generally able from this
to say what peculiar feature he requires, or where he thinks it
should be altered; if he can do this it saves a great deal of trouble
in the future, whilst the coach is being built.

For this work the draughtsman requires a drawing-board and T
square, and two set squares; as he never has to prepare very large
drawings, a board of imperial size will be amply sufficient, and
the T square to have a corresponding length of blade. T squares are
made of a variety of woods, but the most serviceable is one made
of mahogany, with an ebony edge; the most important consideration
being that the edge should be truly “shot” from end to end. The set
squares should either be vulcanite or skeleton mahogany with ebony
edges; the latter are preferable, as they work more cleanly than
the vulcanite, which, unless kept very clean, are apt to make black
smears across the drawing. In order to fasten the paper down to the
drawing board, drawing pins will be required; they are simple pins
of iron or steel, with a large flat brass head; four is the number
required for each sheet of paper, one at each corner. A very much
better way to fix the paper down is to “strain” it to the board. It
is done in the following way:—The sheet of paper to be fastened down
is thoroughly well wetted, by means of a sponge or large flat brush,
on one side (which, it does not matter, but see that your board is
perfectly clean before starting); it should then be left for five or
ten minutes for the water to well soak into the pores of the paper;
when this is done, the paper will be quite limp. Now take a perfectly
clean straight edge, or the back edge of the T square, and turn up
one of the edges of the paper ¼ or ½ an inch against it; along this
edge run a brush charged with glue from the glue pot, or a piece of
ordinary glue dipped into boiling water and rubbed along the edge
will do just as well, and when you think there is enough sticky
matter to promote adhesion between the paper and the board, turn the
edge of the paper back on the board (without removing the straight
edge or T square), and quickly rub it with the tips of the fingers
until it goes down flat all along without any air bubbles: do this to
all four edges of the paper, and place in a perfectly flat position
to dry; and if the operation has been carefully conducted the paper
will be beautifully flat to draw upon, and there can be no fear of
its shifting. When the drawing is finished, all that has to be done
is to cut round the edges of the paper just inside the glued edge,
and take it off. A little hot water will take off the glued strip,
and take care to wash all the glue off at the same time, otherwise
a smaller piece of paper might stick in some important part, and the
drawing spoilt in order to detach it.

The draughtsman will do well to have a few French curves, for drawing
the “sweeps” or curved lines of the carriage bodies, and scales of
various sizes, which are slips of boxwood or ivory, on which are
marked at the edges various scales, from ¹⁄₁₆th of an inch to a foot
up to 3 inches to a foot; and last, though not by any means least,
a good box of compasses or mathematical instruments. We shall not
discuss the merits of the various kinds of instruments here, but any
one wishing to go into the matter may do so by reading “Mathematical
Instruments” in Weale’s Series. But we should strongly advise the
draughtsman to go to some good maker, as bad drawing instruments only
lead to bad drawing.

The drawing paper used should be of a kind having a slight gloss
on the surface, like “hot-pressed” paper, but without its granular
texture. This kind of paper is usually called a “board,” as Bristol
board, and kept in various sizes, and sold by all colour dealers.
Various names are given to it, but it is all pretty nearly alike.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Coach.]

The paper being fastened, the drawing is commenced by drawing the
ground line A (Fig. 7); from that set off the height that the body
is to be from the ground, indicated by the dotted line B, and draw
the line C, which is the depth of the rocker. This latter is the real
bottom of the vehicle, and from it is measured the height of the
seat, about 12 inches, shown by the dotted lines on the body. Then
from the seat measure 42 inches, the length of the roof D. Lay off 23
inches for the width of the door, and draw E and F. From F measure
28 inches, the depth of the back quarter G, and from E measure 25
inches, which will give the front quarter H. Now the curves or
sweeps of the body can be put in by means of French curves. From the
hinge pillar measure 26 inches, shown by dotted line I, and this is
the centre of the hind wheel, which is 4 feet 3 inches high. The
spring is 1¼ inches thick, and consists of 5 plates 42 inches long.
The opening between the springs is 12½ inches, the lower one being
clipped beneath the axle. Measure 12½ inches from the underside of
the axle, which will give the underside of the top spring. 1¼ inches
must also be allowed for the back bar J, and the pump-handle K will
be ½ an inch thick. Then draw the boot L in such a position that
the front wheels will lock or turn under it freely. This may be
found by drawing a plan of the wheel as shown, and with the centre
of the lock bolt produced to N, strike the lines M, and it will be
seen that the wheels will just clear the body, which is all that is
necessary. From this it will be noticed that the centre on which
the fore carriage turns is not in the same plane as the axle. This
is more particularly discussed in the chapter on wheel-plates. The
front wheel is 42 inches high, the springs the same size as the back
springs. The draught may be now completed from Fig. 7, after having
settled on the various heights and sizes, and can be inked in with
Indian ink. The dotted lines, being merely constructional, are rubbed
out when the drawing is inked in. To complete the drawing, the spokes
of the wheels must be shown. These should be neither too many nor too
few, but there is no rule which regulates their number, except that
there should be two to each felloe. Having inked the parts in and
cleaned the pencil lines off, the drawing is ready to be coloured.
The colours applied to the drawing are the same as will be used for
painting the carriage, so we shall not detail them here.

From this drawing is constructed the full-size draught, which is
prepared before a tool is touched. On the walls of the body-making
shop are large black-boards, 10 or 12 feet square, and on these the
draughts are prepared just in the same way as described for the scale
drawing, except that all the heights are marked up a vertical line
which runs through the centre of the doorway, and from this the
various widths are also set off. This and the ground line are the
first two lines drawn, and it is imperative that they should make
a perfect right angle with each other, otherwise the draught will
not be true, and the material worked from it will be wasted. This
full-sized draught requires the greatest care in preparation, as all
the patterns to which the materials are cut or shaped are taken from
it, even to the smallest parts.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Brougham with Cant-Board. S, Standing pillar
(developed). B, Bottom bar. R, Rocker. L, Seat.]

The full-size draught also differs from the scale draught, inasmuch
as all the details of the construction of the vehicle are shown as
in the accompanying cut (Fig. 8), which shows the construction of a
small doctor’s brougham, and Fig. 9, which shows the construction
of a landau. This latter is a representation of the working draught
for the vehicle, and, in fact, is a reduced copy of what would be
drawn upon the black-board in the shop, except that some of the minor
details are omitted to avoid confusion.

[Illustration: Fig. 9.—Landau.]




                            CHAPTER III.

  VARIOUS MATERIALS USED IN COACH-BUILDING.

The materials employed in coach-building number a great many: various
kinds of wood—ash, beech, elm, oak, mahogany, cedar, deal, pine, &c.
hides, skins, hair, wool, silk, glue, whalebone, ivory, &c. iron,
steel, copper, brass, lead, tin, glass, &c.

The timber principally used in the construction of carriages is the
ash. This is not an elastic, but rather a tough and fibrous wood,
capable of altering its form by the application of pressure, and
therefore when not in large masses requires iron plates to secure it.
By boiling it becomes very pliable, and may be formed into almost
any shape, provided that it is not too thick. For this purpose it
is better to use steam than boiling water, as the latter is likely
to dissolve and carry off the gluten which unites the fibres, thus
rendering the timber useless. Some ash timber is white at heart, and
some red; the white is usually the strongest and best. Some trees
which have been grown on hillsides much exposed to constant winds
present a remarkably wrinkled appearance through their whole length,
and it is scarcely possible to plane their timber smooth; this is the
toughest of all ash timber. Parts of ash-trees are sometimes found of
a yellowish-brown colour, accompanied by a fetid acid smell. This is
sometimes attributed to the effect of lightning, but more probably
it is a putrid fermentation of the sap, owing to imperfect drying.
All other circumstances being equal, the timber is best which is cut
down when the circulation of the sap is slowest, as the pores are
then open. In the process of drying or seasoning the bulk diminishes
considerably. One of the qualities which render ash peculiarly
fit for carriage construction is the absence of elasticity, and
consequent indisposition to alter its form by warping or twisting.
It is not well adapted for boards or planks in which much width
is required, as in drying it cracks a great deal. The diameter of
ash-trees used by carriage-builders varies from 1 foot to 3 feet 6
inches. It should be borne in mind in cutting ash, that the interior
and the outer casing under the bark are rather softer and less
durable than the parts between them.

Beech is sometimes used by carriage-builders and by wheelwrights,
on account of its cheapness; but it is very liable to warp and rot,
and consequently unworthy of the attention of the conscientious
manufacturer.

Elm is largely used for planking where strength is required. The
grain is wavy, hard to work, brittle, and apt to split without care.
It is not a good surface to paint on, as the grain shows through
several coats of colour. It is also used for the naves or stocks of
wheels.

Oak is used for the spokes of wheels. The best kinds are made from
the timbers of saplings, which are not sawn but _cleft_, in order
that the grain may be not cut across and render the spoke unfit to
resist the strains it will be subject to. Spokes are also made from
the limbs of large trees.

Mahogany is largely used for panels, as when painted it shows a very
even surface. There are two kinds, the “Spanish” and the “Honduras.”
The former is unfit for the purposes of the carriage-builder. It is
heavy and very difficult to work, requiring special tools for this
purpose, as the edges of ordinary tools are rapidly destroyed by it.
The Honduras is very much lighter and cheaper than Spanish, and the
grain and colour more even. It takes the sweeps and curves required
for body-work very easily. It can be procured up to 4 feet in width,
straight-grained, and free from knots and blemishes.

A coarse-grained species of cedar is brought from the same district
as Honduras mahogany, and is sometimes used for panels which have to
be covered with leather, &c. Its extreme porosity renders it unfit
for the application of paint.

Deal is largely used for the flooring of carriages, and for covered
panels, and for any rough work that is not exposed to great wear and
tear.

The wide American pine is chiefly used in very thin boards to form
the covered panels and roofing of carriages.

Lancewood is a straight-grained, elastic wood, but very brittle when
its limit of elasticity is reached. It comes from the West Indies
in taper poles about 20 feet long and 6 or 8 inches diameter at the
largest end. It was formerly much used for shafts, but since curved
forms have been fashionable it has fallen into disuse. It can be
bent by boiling, but is a very unsafe material to trust to such an
important office as the shafts.

American birch is a very valuable wood for flat boarding, as it can
be procured up to 3 feet in width. It is of a perfectly homogeneous
substance, free from rents, and with scarcely a perceptible pore. It
works easily with the plane and yields a very smooth surface, and
the grain does not show through the most delicate coat of paint. Its
chief disadvantage is its brittleness, which will not permit of its
being used for any but plane surfaces, and some care is required in
nailing and screwing it.

Hides are used chiefly for coverings, but also in some parts strips
are used for the purposes of suspension. The hides are those of
horses and neat cattle. For covering they are converted into leather
by the action of oak and other bark. They are afterwards smoothed
and levelled by the currier, and sometimes split into two equal
thicknesses by machinery. They are then rendered pliable by the
action of oil and tallow, and finished to a clear black or brown
colour as may be required. This is called dressed leather. For some
purposes the hides are merely levelled, put on wet to the object
they are intended to cover, and left to shrink and dry. Others are
covered with a coat of elastic japan, which gives them a highly
glazed surface, impermeable to water; in this state they are called
patent leather. In a more perfectly elastic mode of japanning,
which will permit folding without cracking the surface, they are
called enamelled leather. They are generally black, but any colour
desired may be given to them. All this japanned leather has the japan
annealed, somewhat in the same mode as glass. The hides are laid
between blankets, and are subjected to the heat of an oven raised to
the proper temperature during several hours.

The skins used are those of the sheep and goat. The former are
converted into leather by the action of oak bark. In one form
of dressing them they are known as basil leather, which is of a
light brown colour and very soft. Sometimes they are blacked, and
occasionally japanned like the hides. In all these forms sheep skins
are only used for inferior purposes, as mere coverings, where no
strength is required.

Goat skins are used in the preparation of the leather known as
“Spanish” and “Morocco.” They are not tanned in oak bark like other
leather, but very slightly in the bark of the sumach-tree. They
pass through many processes previous to that of dyeing, for which
purpose they are sewn up with the grain outwards and blown out like
a bladder. This is to prevent the dye from getting access to the
flesh side. This beautiful leather was originally manufactured by the
Moors, who afterwards introduced the process into Spain, by which
means it came to be known under two names. The English have greatly
improved on the manufacture, so much so that few others can vie with
it. These skins are used for the inside linings of carriages.

Hair is used as an article of stuffing. To give it the peculiar curl
which renders it elastic, it is forcibly twisted up in small locks,
and in that state baked in an oven to fix it. Horse-hair is the best,
being the strongest and longest; but various other kinds are used.
Sometimes it is adulterated with fibres of whalebone. Doe-hair is
also much used as an article for stuffing, but as it is very short it
cannot be curled, and there is not much elasticity in it.

Wool in its natural state is not used for carriage purposes. In the
form of “flocks,” which are the short combings and fibres produced
in the process of manufacturing it, it is very largely used for
stuffing. In its manufactured state wool is used in great quantities,
as cloth, lace, fringe, carpeting, &c.

The iron used is that known as wrought iron. To judge of its quality
break a piece over the anvil; if it breaks off brittle it is of no
use for the purposes it is required for. If it is good wrought iron
the fracture will present a bluish, fibrous, silky texture, without
any crystalline portions. Inferior iron will either appear bright and
glistening (when it partakes of the properties of cast iron) or dull
and greyish in tone at the fracture.

It may also be tested by bringing it to a red heat and bending it,
when any flaws, &c., will at once become apparent.

Cast iron is also used in the shape of axle-boxes.

Great quantities of wrought iron are used in the construction of
modern carriages. One of the best qualities is that known as the
“King and Queen,” so called from its brand. This iron is manufactured
from pieces of old iron, called scrap iron, which are placed in
furnaces and welded under a heavy tilt-hammer, after which it is
passed between rollers and converted into bars.

Steel also enters largely into carriage construction in the shape
of springs, &c. Axles are made of Bessemer steel, and are found to
wear very well. Steel consists of iron in which is combined a large
proportion of carbon; the more carbon the higher the elasticity of
the steel. If steel is over-heated, it gives up a portion of its
carbon and approaches once again its original form of iron.




                             CHAPTER IV.

  POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE COMMENCING THE CONSTRUCTION OF A
  CARRIAGE.—COMPONENT PARTS OF THE BODY.—SMITH’S WORK.—GLUE.


As previously remarked the vehicle is divided into two parts—the
carriage and the body. After the drawing or draught is carefully
worked out to full-size on the black-board in the shop, with all
the curves and sweeps developed, and shown in elevation and plan,
patterns or templates are made from the draught, and from these the
construction of the body proceeds.

In commencing the construction of a vehicle there are several things
to be borne in mind; such as the purpose to which the vehicle is to
be applied, the size of horses to draw it, and other considerations
arising from these two. It is popularly believed that the shorter the
carriage the lighter it will run; in ascending an incline this may be
true, but on ordinary level ground a long carriage and short one must
be alike in friction, provided the total amount of weight and other
circumstances be equally balanced.

Another consideration is the height of the wheels. On level ground,
draught is easiest when the centre of the wheel is a little lower
than the point of draught, viz. the point where the traces are
affixed to the collar; but this in practice would be found rather
inconvenient, as very high wheels would be required, and consequently
the height of the whole vehicle would have to be increased, causing
great trouble and annoyance in getting in and out of the vehicle,
and the driver’s seat would have to be raised to a corresponding
height. Under equal circumstances a high wheel is more efficient
than a low one, and requires less power to draw it; though it may be
mentioned that a low wheel on a good and level road will do its work
far better than a very much higher wheel on a rougher road. The sizes
of the wheels of two-wheeled vehicles vary from 3 feet to 4 feet 6
inches.

It would be a very good thing if four-wheeled vehicles were to have
the wheels of equal size, in order that the friction and power might
be equal. But with the present mode of construction this is an
impossibility, as we have only one mode of making the lock or turn.
Therefore the height of the fore wheels must be regulated by the
height at which the body hangs, so that the wheels may pass beneath
it without striking, when the springs play. In practice this height
varies from 2 feet to 3 feet 8 inches, according to the kind of
carriage the wheels are intended for. The hind wheels vary from 3
feet to 4 feet 8 inches.

The next point is the dishing of the wheel, which is necessary for
strength to take the strain off the nuts, to throw off the mud and
prevent it clogging either the wheel or the body, and to give greater
room for the body between the wheels without increasing the track on
the ground. Whatever be the amount of dishing or coning, which varies
from 1½ to 2½ inches, one rule should always be observed, viz. so to
form the wheel that when running the lower spokes should maintain
a true vertical position both in the fore and hind wheels. This is
mainly accomplished by the dip of the axle, but if the fore and hind
wheels have the same dish, they will take the same track along the
ground. The dish of a wheel will be understood by referring to Fig.
10, in which it will be seen that the extremities of the spokes are
not in the same plane, thus forming a dish or hollow in the surface
of the wheel.

[Illustration: Fig. 10.]

Some ingenious persons have deduced from the foregoing that a wheel
runs best on an axle having a conical arm (the arm is the extremity
of the axle which fits into an axle-box in the nave or stock of the
wheel), in which case the axle would not dip, but the wheel would be
put on to a perfectly horizontal axle. The motion of a wheel thus
placed would be anything but artistic, though there would not be
so much friction on an arm of this sort as on an arm of the dipped
axle. Dipping the axle is shown at Fig. 10. It merely consists in
bending it so far out of the horizontal as to give the lower spokes
a vertical position. But in practice this theory of the conical arm
will not answer, inasmuch as curving the arm will reduce the front
bearing surface so much that the oil would be squeezed out, and it
would run dry, and the total amount of friction would be greatly
increased. Long practice has shown that a cylindrical or slightly
conical arm is the best that can be used.

We have now to settle the form, combination, and proportion of the
springs. Springs which are laid on the axle at right angles have
to carry the whole of the weight of the carriage, save only the
wheels and axles. Where other springs are used in addition it is
not necessary that the axle-springs should have much play. It will
be sufficient to give them just so much play as will intercept
the concussion caused by moving over a road. The strength of the
springs must of course be adjusted to the weight they have to carry,
for it is evident that if they be made sufficiently elastic to
carry the weight of six persons, they will be found hard if only
three enter the carriage. This is a disadvantage all carriages must
labour under, for it is ridiculous to suppose that if a carriage is
constructed to hold six that number will always want to use it at
the same time. There would seem to be room for some improvement in
the way of introducing springs adjustable to any weight, though, to
give spring-makers their due, they do turn out really a first-class
article in this respect; this is more noticeable because it is so
recent. Light carriages are never so easy to ride as heavy ones,
even when the springs are well adjusted, because on meeting with an
obstacle there is not a sufficient resistance to the bound or jerk
upwards of the spring, which makes riding in a light carriage over a
rough road rather unpleasant.

The position of the front wheels next demands attention. As these
have to turn under the body it requires some skill to fix them, and
the play of the springs, the height of the axletree, and the height
of the arch (the portion of the body under which they turn) have
all to be considered. This will be more particularly described when
dealing with wheel-plates.

The rule for the height of the splinter-bar, to which the traces or
shafts are fixed, is that it should fall on a line drawn from the
horse’s shoulder to the centre of the hind wheel. This, however,
is not always convenient in practice, as the fore wheels regulate
the height of the framing of the under carriage, to which the
splinter-bar is fixed. The distance of the splinter-bar from the
central pin, on which the wheel-plate and fore carriage turn, is
regulated by the size of the wheels and the projection of the driving
seat footboard.

All the above particulars are considered when setting out the
full-sized draught, and all points capable of delineation are put on
the board in some convenient part. In Fig. 9 the outline is simply
given, as to show everything would only confuse the reader. Such
other details as are required are filled in after the draught has
reached the stage shown in the figure.

It is most necessary for the safe conduct of a coach and carriage
builder’s business that there should be a goodly stack of
well-seasoned timber of the various kinds required, otherwise great
trouble and vexation will arise in the course of business from a good
piece of timber being perhaps spoilt in working, and there not being
another piece in the factory to replace it.

Where there is sufficient accommodation it is usual for makers
to season their own timber in specially constructed sheds, which
are kept from bad weather, but at the same time thoroughly well
ventilated. In these the timber is stacked, with small fillets
between each plank or board, to insure a free current of air
circulating all round. One year should be allowed for seasoning for
every inch of thickness in the timber, and none should be used in
which this rule has not been observed.

Thin portions of timber, such as panel stuff and the like, should be
treated in the same way, and in addition the ends should be secured
to prevent splitting. The panel stuff undergoes another process
of seasoning after it is planed up; in fact, all the thin timber
required for roofs, sides, &c., does. And about the first thing done
in commencing to build a carriage is for the body-maker to get his
thin stuff ready, as far as planing it up goes, and then to put it
aside in some moderately dry place, with slips of wood between each
board to allow a circulation of air round them. The other stuff that
is likely to be required should also be selected and put aside. If
all these things be strictly attended to, there is not likely to
be much trouble about bad joints; and it will be to the employer’s
interest to look after such workmen who have not enough scientific
knowledge to see the reason of things themselves, and put them in the
right direction. But an intelligent workman will soon appreciate the
advantage of getting his stuff ready at the commencement, instead of
waiting till he wants to use it.

The parts composing the body may be thus enumerated:—

  The frame or case.

  The doors.

  The glasses, which are fixed in thin frames of wainscot,
  covered with cloth or velvet. It is a very good thing to have
  india-rubber for these to fall on, and little india-rubber buffers
  would prevent them from rattling.

  The blinds, which are sometimes panel, but more generally
  Venetian, so adjusted with springs that the bars may stand
  open at any required angle.

  The curtains, of silk, which slide up and down on spring
  rollers.

  The lining and cushions, of cloth, silk, or morocco, as the
  case may be, ornamented with lace, &c. The cushions are
  sometimes made elastic with small spiral springs.

  The steps, which are made to fold up and fit into recesses
  in the doors, or in the bottom, when they are not in use.

  The lamps, which are fixed to the fore part of the body by
  means of iron stays.

  The boot, on which is carried the coachman’s seat.

In carriages suspended from C springs we have in addition:—

  The check-brace rings, to which are attached leather braces
  from the spring heads, to prevent the body from swinging
  too much backwards and forwards.

  The collar-brace rings, to which are attached leather braces
  from the perch, to prevent the body swinging too much upwards
  or sideways.

The curve or rounding given to the side of the body from end to end
is called the _side-cant_, and the rounding from the top to the
bottom the _turn-under_. Some makers arrive at this curve by framing
the skeleton of the body together with square timber, and then round
these off to the required curve _after_ they are put together. It
must be evident to any one that this proceeding will greatly strain
the joints, and under any circumstances will never give thorough
satisfaction or good results, and the waste of time and material must
be very considerable.

The proper way is to set the curve out beforehand on a board called
the “cant” board, and the method of doing this is as follows:—

Take a clean pine board, plane it up to a smooth surface. Shoot one
edge perfectly true with a trying-plane. This straight edge may be
taken to represent the side of the carriage if it were a straight
line. Apply this edge to the full-sized draught, and mark along it
the various parts of the body (see Fig. 8, in which the numbered
points are those required to form the side-cant). By means of these
points the required sweep can be set up or drawn, as shown by the
dotted line C in the figure. Now, if you choose, you can cut away the
portion between A and B, and a template will be formed to which the
constructional timbers can be cut; and it possesses the advantage
of being easily applied to the carriage as it proceeds, to see that
the curve is true and uniform. As this template forms the pattern to
which the timber, &c., is cut, great care is requisite in forming it,
so that it shall be perfectly true.

In order to get the turn-under, the same process is gone through
on another board. This gives what is called the “standing” pillar
pattern, the standing pillar being the upright timber to which the
door is hinged.

There is no rule in particular for determining the amount of
side-cant or turn-under to be given to a vehicle, 2½ or 3 inches on
each side making the outside width of the body; 5 or 6 inches less at
the bottom than at the elbow line is a usual allowance, but this is
entirely dependent on the will or taste of the workman.

The cant-board described above is one having a “concave” surface; but
it quite as often has a convex surface, and it is just as well to
have one of each, and use the convex for cutting the timbers to, and
the concave for trying them when in place, though, if this be done,
it is imperative that the curves on the two boards should be one and
the same. The same remarks apply to the standing pillar pattern.

The body is a species of box, fitted with doors and windows, and
lined and wadded for the purpose of comfort. As the greatest amount
of strain is put upon the bottom part, and the forces acting on the
other parts are transmitted to the bottom, it is necessary that it
should be very strongly put together. The two side bottom timbers
are bonded, or tied together, by two cross timbers called bottom
bars, which are firmly framed into them. To give depth to the floor,
without destroying the symmetry of the side, deep pieces of elm plank
are fixed to the inside of the side bottom pieces, and to these the
flooring-boards are nailed, being additionally secured by iron strap
plates, nailed or screwed beneath them. In the central portion of the
bottom sides are framed the door-posts, called standing pillars. At
the angles of the bottom framework are scarfed the corner pillars.
The cross framing pieces, which connect the pillars, are called
rails. Two of these rails stretch across the body inside, on which
the seats are formed; these are called seat rails. The doors are
framed double, to contain a hollow space for the glasses and blinds,
and they are fastened by means of a wedge lock, forced into a groove
by a lever handle. There is a window in each door and one in front
of an ordinary carriage, say a brougham. The doors are hinged with
secret or flush hinges.

Before cutting the timber to the various sizes required, patterns or
templates of all the parts are made in thin wood from the full-sized
draught; also of the various curves likely to be given to the
different parts of the body.

Before a workman could be trusted with the making of a body, he must
of course have considerably advanced in the knowledge of his craft
beyond the mere use of his tools, because the success of a carriage
depends very largely upon the individual skill of the workman, more
so than perhaps in any other trade.

The stuff is marked out from the thin patterns before mentioned
by means of chalk, and in doing so care should be taken to lay
the patterns on the timber so that the grain may run as nearly
as possible in a line with it, and thus obtaining the greatest
possible strength in the wood, which lies in the direction of the
grain. Thus if the pattern be straight, lay it down on a piece of
straight-grained timber; if the pattern sweep round, then get a piece
of timber the grain of which will follow, or nearly follow, the line
of pattern.

The strongest timber that can be obtained is necessary for the
construction of the hind and front bottom sides; for the weight is
directly transmitted to these, more particularly the hind bottom
sides, where the pump-handles are fixed.

The body-maker, having marked and cut out the various pieces of
timber he will require, planes a flat side to each of them, from
which all the other sides, whether plain or curved, are formed and
finished. They are then framed and scarfed together, after which
the various grooves are formed for the panels and rebates, for the
floor-boards to fit on to. Then, if there is to be any carved or
beaded work, it is performed by the carver. Previous to being fitted
in, some of the panels have strong canvas glued firmly on their
backs, and when fitted in blocks are glued round the internal angles
to give greater security to the joints, and to fix the panels firmly
in their places. Before the upper panels are put in, the roof is
nailed on, and all the joints stuck over with glued blocks inside.
The upper panels are then put on, united at the corners, and blocked
inside.

If the foreman who superintends all this be a thoroughly skilful
artisan, and the men under him possess equal intelligence and skill,
the work might be distributed amongst almost as many men as there are
parts in the framework of the body. These parts will be worked up,
the mortises and tenons, the rabbets and tongues, being all cut to
specified gauges; and when they are all ready it will be found that
they go together like a Chinese puzzle.

The woodwork being completed, the currier now takes the body in
hand, and a hide of undressed leather, specially prepared for it, is
strained over the roof, the back, and the top quarters of the body
whilst in a soft pulpy state, and carefully sleeked or flattened down
till it is perfectly flat. This sleeking down is a rather tedious
process, and takes a long time and a great amount of care to bring it
to a successful issue; when it is flattened down satisfactorily, it
is nailed round the edges and left to dry, which will take several
days.

Such panels as require bending may be brought to the required sweep
by wetting one side and subjecting the other to heat, as of a small
furnace.

The doors are now made and hinged, and the hollow spaces intended
to hold the glasses and blinds are covered in with thin boards, to
prevent any foreign matter from getting down into the space, and
being a source of trouble to dislodge.

In constructing the body the aid of the smith is called in. His
services are required to strengthen the parts subjected to great
strain, more particularly the timbers forming the construction of the
lower portion. All along each side of the body should be plated with
iron; this should be of the best brand and toughest quality. It is
several inches wide, and varies from ¼ to ¾ of an inch in thickness.
This is called the “edge plate,” and is really the backbone of the
body, for everything depends on its stability. It should run from
one extremity to the other, commencing at the hind bottom bar, on
to which it should be cranked, and ending at the front part of the
front boot, bottom side. This plate should take a perfectly flat
bearing at every point. Great care must be taken in fitting it, for
although the plate may be of the requisite strength the absence of
this perfect fitting will render it comparatively weak, the result
of which will be found, when the carriage is completed and mounted
on the wheels, by the springing of the sides, which will cause the
pillars of the body to press on the doors, and it will be a matter of
great difficulty to open them.

In the application of smith’s work to coach-building, it is often
necessary to fit the iron to intricate parts while it is red hot, and
if due precaution be not taken the wood becomes charred and useless,
and in cases where there are glued joints it may cause the loosening
or breaking of these joints and other material defects. It is an
easy matter to have the means at hand to get over the difficulty.
All that is necessary is to have handy some heat neutraliser. One of
the commonest things that can be used is chalk, and no smith’s shop
should ever be without it. If chalk is rubbed over the surface to
which the hot iron is to be applied it will not char or burn. Plaster
of Paris is a still more powerful heat neutraliser, and it is freer
from grit. A small quantity of the plaster mixed with water, and
worked up to the proper consistency, will be ready for use in about
two hours. Many smiths will say that they never have any accidents in
applying heated iron, but on inquiry the reason is apparent, for it
will generally be found that such men use chalk, in order to see that
the iron plate takes its proper bearings, thus inadvertently using
a proper heat neutraliser. If it were more generally known that the
difficulty could be met by such simple means, there would be less
material spoilt in the smith’s shop.

It has been very common of late years for body-makers to use glue
instead of screws and nails for panel work, &c. but it requires
a great deal of experience for a man to use glue with successful
results. It is useless for the tyro to try it; he will only spoil the
work. So, unless the artisan be well experienced in the treatment
and application of glue, he had better leave it alone. To render the
operation successful two considerations must be taken into account.
_First_: To do good gluing requires that the timber should be well
seasoned and the work well fitted. _Second_: In preparing for gluing
use a scratch plane or rasp to form a rough surface of the pieces
to be joined together, for the same purpose that a plasterer scores
over his first coat of plaster-work, in order to give a key or hold.
The shop in which the gluing is done should be at a pretty good
temperature, and so should the material, so that the glue may flow
freely. Having the glue properly prepared, spread it upon the parts,
so as to fill up the pores and grain of the wood, and put the pieces
together; then keep the joints tight by means of iron cramps where
it is possible, and if this cannot be done the joints must be pushed
tightly up, and held till the glue is a little set and there is no
fear of its giving way. All superfluous glue will be forced out by
this pressure and can be cleaned off.

A great cause of bad gluing is using inferior glue and laying it on
too thick. Before using a new quality of glue, the body-maker should
always test it by taking, say a piece of poplar and a piece of ash,
and glue them together, and if when dry the joints give way under
leverage caused by the insertion of the chisel, the glue is not fit
for the purposes of carriage-building and should be rejected. With
good glue, like good cement, the material should rather give way than
the substance promoting adhesion. This is a very severe test, but in
putting it into practice you will be repaid by the stability of your
work.


_Waterproof Glue._

It is often found that joints glued together will allow water to
dissolve the glue, and thereby destroy its adhesive power. It may
have been well painted and every care taken to make it impervious to
water, but owing to its exposed position water has managed to get in.
Often where screws are put in the glue around them will be dissolved,
caused by the screws sweating; and it is very often found, where the
screws are inserted in a panel, that the glue loses its strength
and allows the joint to open, and there is little or no appearance
of glue on the wood, which shows that it has been absorbed by the
moisture.

To render ordinary glue insoluble, the water with which it is mixed
should have a little bichromate of potash dissolved in it. Chromic
acid has the property of rendering glue or gelatine insoluble. And,
as the operation of heating the glue pot is conducted in the light,
no special exposure of the pieces joined is necessary.

Glue prepared in this manner is preferable in gluing the panels on
bodies, which are liable to the action of water or damp. The strength
of the glue is not affected by the addition of the potash.

In plugging screw holes glue the edge of the plug; put no glue into
the hole. By this means the surplus glue is left on the surface, and
if the plug does not hit the screw it will seldom show.

Where brads are used the heads should be well set in; then pass a
sponge well saturated with hot water over them, filling the holes
with water. This brings the wood more to its natural position, and it
closes by degrees over the brad heads. The brad must have a chance
to expand, when exposed to the heat of the sun, without hitting the
putty stopping; if it does it will force the putty out so as to show,
by disturbing the surface, after the work is finished.




                             CHAPTER V.

  PARTS COMPOSING THE UNDER-CARRIAGE.—FRAMING THEM
  TOGETHER.—WROUGHT-IRON PERCHES.—BRAKES.


We have now to consider the construction of the lower framework, or
_carriage_.

The following is a list of the chief parts of a _coach_, as generally
known:—

  Wheels.

  Axles.

  Springs.

  Beds, or cross framing timbers, which are technically
  termed the fore axle bed, the hind axle bed, fore
  spring bed or transom, hind spring bed, and horn
  bar.

  Perch, or central longitudinal timber connecting the
  axletrees.

  Wings, which are spreading sides, hooped to the perch
  and framed to the hind beds.

  Nunters, or small framing pieces, which help to bind
  the hind beds together.

  Hooping-piece. A piece of timber scarped and hooped
  to the fore end of the perch to secure it to the

  Wheel plate, which is the circular iron beneath which
  the fore carriage turns.

The fore carriage consists of the fore axle beds, into which are
framed the

  Futchells (French, _fourchil_, a fork), which are the longitudinal
  timbers supporting the

  Splinter-bar and the

  Pole, to which the horses are attached.

The hinder ends of the futchells support the

  Sway-bar—a circular piece of timber working beneath
  the wheel-plate.

A circular piece of timber of smaller size, supported on the fore
part of the futchells for a similar purpose, is called the

  Felloe-piece (often made of iron).

On the splinter-bar are fixed the

  Roller bolts, for fastening the traces.

On the pole is fixed the

  Pole hook, to secure the harness.

The perch and beds are strengthened with iron plates, where
necessary, and the other ironwork consists of

  Splinter-bar stays, to resist the action of the draught.
  Formerly these were affixed to the ends of the
  axles and called “wheel-irons.”

  Tread-steps, for the coachman to mount by.

  Footman’s step.

  Spring-stays.

On the beds are placed

  Blocks, to support the

  =C= springs; to which are attached

  Jacks, or small windlasses, and

  Leathern suspension braces.

These parts fitted together would form what is generally known as a
coach, or a vehicle, the body of which is large, and suspended by
leathern braces from the ends of =C= springs. They enter into the
formation of all vehicles more or less, but for the other kinds some
part or parts are omitted, as in a brougham hung on elliptic springs,
the =C= springs, perch, leather braces, &c., would be omitted, and,
of course, elliptic springs and a pump-handle would be added. All the
woodwork is lightened as much as possible by the introduction of
beading, carving, chamfering, &c.

In starting the carriage part the workman first takes the perch and
planes a flat side to it, and then works it taper from front to
back. The top and bottom curves are then worked up, or at least some
portion of them, and then the front and hind spring beds are framed
on. A pair of spreading wings are then fitted to the sides of the
perch; these are simply circular iron stays, swelled and moulded to
take off their plainness. A pair is fitted at each end of the perch.
The hind axletree bed is then scarfed upon the top of the perch and
wings, and is connected with the hind spring bed by two small framing
pieces called nunters. At the front end of the perch a cross bed
called a horn-bar is scarfed on the perch, at the same distance from
the fore spring bed as the hind axle bed is from the hind spring bed,
viz. the length of the bearing of the spring, or about 15 inches.
The horn-bar is connected with the fore spring bed by the two spring
blocks, which are either framed into them or scarfed down on them,
and also by the hooping-piece, which is scarfed on the top of the
perch. The perch is then planed up to the curve it is to have when
finished, and it is then taken to the smith, who fits and rivets
on the side plates, which have ears at the ends for the purpose of
bolting them to the beds. The carver then does his work by beading
the perch and beds, having due regard to the finish of the parts,
rounds and curves all the ends. On the under side of the perch is
riveted an iron plate, and on this plate is an iron hook for hanging
the drag shoe and chain (if such be used). The hind framing is now
put together, all connections being by means of mortises and tenons
secured by screw-bolts. The wings used to be, and sometimes still
are, of wood, in which case they are hooped to the perch by iron
hoops, and are rebated to receive the perch plates. The hooping-piece
is then hooped in a similar way to the fore end of the perch, and
the transom firmly bolted. The carriage is then turned bottom
upwards, and the smith fits to the fore part the wheel plate or
turning iron, across which runs a broad plate the width and length of
the fore spring bed. A similar plate runs across the hind spring bed.
The hind axle is then fitted to the wings and perch, and let into
its bed at the ends, where screw clips secure it, the bolts passing
through the perch.

The carriage is then turned up into its old position; the wheel-plate
is cased on the top with carved wood, and a plate is riveted to the
side of the horn-bar. The springs are now fitted to their blocks and
bolted firmly down. Iron stays are bolted to the springs beneath the
beds to render them still firmer. The footman’s step, and the steps
for the coachman to mount to his box by, and other ironwork that may
be required in the shape of stays, &c., are then fixed in their place.

The under portion of the fore carriage is framed to the fore axletree
bed, which is a very stout piece of timber. Through this are framed
the two futchells which receive the pole. The upper part of the
axletree bed is covered with a strong plate to match the wheel-plate.
A circular piece of timber, called a sway-bar, is bolted behind the
axletree bed, and this is also plated beneath for security. In front
is a smaller piece of the same kind, and they both serve for the
circumference of the wheel to rest on. The splinter-bar is bolted on
to the fore end of the futchells and secured by branching stays, one
at either end connecting it with the axletree bed. As an additional
security, iron stays are fitted to the bottoms of the futchells
passing over the axle, which, in addition to bolts, is secured by
screw clips at the ends, the same as the hind one.

The carriage above described is one suspended only on =C= springs.
Sometimes elliptic springs are used in conjunction with =C= springs,
and the former are then termed under-springs. In the latter case,
of the double combination of springs, the constructional timbers
may be of a less size or scantling, owing to some of the strain and
concussion being removed. In this case the axles are clipped to the
under-springs; but the general mode of construction is the same.

In first-class work a wrought-iron perch is used instead of the
before described wooden one. This generally follows the contour of
the underside of the body, and is called a swan neck. It enables
the perch to be constructed of a much lighter appearance, and being
really light, and to a certain extent elastic, all the beds and
iron stays may be proportionately reduced in weight. The wheels and
axles also, having less to carry, may also be made lighter. The
system was introduced by Messrs. Hooper about 1846, and at first was
only applied to broughams and sociables, but it has gradually been
applied to the largest carriages, especially barouches and landaus.
These perches are supported on horizontal under-springs, and are not
now made so light as at first, for it is found that unless the hind
wheels follow steadily, not only is the carriage heavier behind the
horse, but the perch itself is frequently bent against very small
obstructions; a stronger and stiffer perch is therefore now used, and
it is found easier both to the horse and to the passengers.

When the body is suspended from =C= springs by leather braces, great
care should be used in the selection of the material for these
latter, and for this purpose the best and strongest leather is
required.

The use of brake retarders to the hind wheels has now for some
years superseded the old-fashioned drag shoes. It is evident that
the action on two wheels must be better than on one only. The brake
can be applied or removed without stopping the carriage, which
is necessary if a drag shoe be used. This is rather an important
consideration in undulating country, for it would be a great
inconvenience to have to get down and put on the drag shoe when
descending a hill, and when at the bottom to stop and get down
again to remove it, in order to proceed along level ground or up the
next hill, and so keep on like this all day. The lever brake was
the original form, as still seen on drags, &c., but in many parts
it is superseded by the foot or treadle brake, more especially in
Scotland. This kind of brake is also the one used by the London
Omnibus Company. The blocks which press upon the wheels have been
made of various substances—cast iron, wrought iron, brass, wood,
india-rubber, and leather. The wood is the best for the hold on the
iron tyre and absence of noise and smell, but it wears out fast.
India-rubber, especially for light carriages, seems to be the most
satisfactory.

We have given, generally, the operation of framing together the
under or carriage parts of the vehicle. But as some very important
considerations regulate the shape, construction, and formation of
most of these parts, they must be discussed separately. For this
purpose they will be considered under the following headings:—

  Wheels.
  Axles.
  Springs.
  Wheel-plates and fore-carriages.
  Ironwork generally.




                             CHAPTER VI.

  WHEELS.

A wheel for a locomotive vehicle is a circular roller, either
cylindrical or conical, the width or thickness of which is
considerably less than its diameter. It may be either solid or
constructed of various pieces, in which latter case it is called a
framed wheel. It may also be made of wood or metal, or a combination
of both.

Wheels which were made before the introduction of iron were of course
very clumsy in their construction, in order to obtain the requisite
strength. Specimens may still be seen in the broad wheels of waggons,
technically termed rollers. The naves of these wheels are of enormous
size. But when the naves of wheels were reduced for the purposes
of elegance, a thin hoop of iron was applied both to the front and
back, to prevent them from bursting by the strain on the spokes. When
the felloes of wheels were reduced in size, straps of iron, called
strakes or streaks, were applied to their convex surfaces covering
the joints. But the last improvement was the most important of all,
namely, the application of a “hoop-tire” instead of what was called
the “strake-tire.” Mr. Felton, in his treatise on coach-building,
1709, says, “Many persons prefer the common sort of wheel on account
of their being more easily repaired than the hoop-tyre wheel; but
though repairing the latter is more difficult, they are much less
subject to need it.”

The earliest form of wheel was no doubt a slice of the trunk of a
tree; portions of this being cut out for the purpose of lightening it
would be the forerunner of spokes, or we should think the pieces left
running from the nave to the felloe would be. The only improvement
then effected for a very long period was making them of different
pieces of timber instead of all from one piece, though of course the
proportions of the parts would be considerably improved, if only for
the sake of appearance.

At the end of the seventeenth century, among the wealthier classes,
decoration was applied to coaches generally, and wheels in
particular, to an extent which would surprise us nowadays. These
latter were again ornamented as in the times of the old Roman Empire;
the spokes were shaped and carved, the rim moulded, and the naves
highly embossed; though, as may be imagined, there was a great want
of taste in the application of all this ornament.

Towards the end of the eighteenth century, the extreme height of
wheels extended to 5 feet 8 inches, which had but 14 spokes; wheels
5 feet 4 inches high had 12 spokes; wheels 4 feet 6 inches had 10
spokes; and the lowest wheels, 3 feet 2 inches high, had 8 spokes.
The naves were of elm, the spokes of oak, and the rims or felloes
of ash or beech. The rims of the higher wheels were often of bent
timber, in two or more pieces, and were bolted to the tires by one
bolt between each pair of spokes. The tire was put on in pieces,
until the hoop-tire came into general use, when it superseded the old
ones entirely. In consequence of the great height of the wheels it
was necessary to make the carriages very long, and the distance from
the front to the hind axletree was 9 feet 2 inches in a chariot, and
9 feet 8 inches in a coach, or about 8 inches longer than we should
consider necessary now.

These extreme sizes are now very seldom used, except in the case of
large dress or state carriages and coaches.

The form of wheel now generally preferred in practice is of the
dished or conical kind, and the axle-arm on which it revolves is
sloped or bent so far out of the horizontal that the lower spokes
are in a vertical position. Undoubtedly the friction is increased
by this arrangement, because a wheel on a horizontal axle runs
easiest and smoothest; and when the axle-arm is slanted downwards
towards the point the wheel has a tendency to bind harder against the
shoulder which butts against the nave of the wheel, and the friction
between the two is greater than would be the case if the axle-arm
were perfectly horizontal. This, however, is a very small objection,
inasmuch as this collar is firm and strong, and well fitted to
bear any strain that may be thrown on it by the wheel; whereas, if
the force acted in the other direction, or against the nuts and
linch-pins, there are very few that would last out a day’s journey.
The advantage of throwing the strain on the firm and strong shoulder,
which is well able to withstand it, is evident; and in this case, in
the event of the nuts or linch-pins falling off or giving way, there
is not so much danger of the wheel coming off at the moment the nuts
go, as its tendency when on a level road is to run upwards towards
the shoulder. Besides this, as the lower spokes are in a vertical
position, the upper ones spread considerably outwards, and thus
afford a greater space for the body between the wheels without the
track on the ground being increased; and another advantage is that
the mud collected by these conical wheels is thrown off away from the
carriage.

The hind wheels of an ordinary carriage vary from 4 feet 3 inches to
4 feet 8 inches; the fore wheels are from 3 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 8
inches. The number of felloes in each circumference varies according
to the number of spokes, two spokes being driven into each felloe;
14 to 20 spokes are a usual number for a hind wheel, 12 to 18 for a
fore wheel; however, there is no rule to guide one in the matter,
experience being the only teacher.

The wheels should be made with a due regard to the offices they have
to fulfil; but we are inclined to think that this branch of the trade
has not received that careful study which it deserves. Coachmakers
seem in such a hurry to produce a perfect vehicle all at once,
instead of beginning by improving the parts and then applying these
improvements to the whole.

[Illustration: Fig. 11.]

The mode of constructing a wheel is as follows:—

The timbers that are to be used should be well and carefully
selected. The nave or stock, which is sliced from the limb of a tree,
should be as nearly as possible the size required in its natural
growth, so that it will require little reduction beyond what it
receives in the lathe in bringing it up to the true circular form.
The reason of this is that the annual rings which mark the grain of
the timber should be as little disturbed as possible, as they are not
all of equal strength and durability, the outer rings being pretty
strong, but as they get nearer to the centre the wood is much softer.
If, then, this outer hard casing is cut away, even only in part, it
is signing the death-warrant of the poor nave, for the interior parts
of the timber are not nearly so capable of resisting the destructive
influences around, and in a very short time they will become
completely soft and rotten.

[Illustration: Fig. 12.]

As already remarked, the spokes should be cleft, not cut. The felloes
which form the outer periphery of the wheel should also be cut as
closely following the grain as possible.

When the wheelwright has carefully selected his timbers, he commences
work by turning the stock in the lathe to the size required. Then
he marks with a gauge of the same width as the spokes 4 circles as
shown at _a_ _a_ _a_ _a_, Fig. 13. The first and third of these mark
the position of the front or face spoke, and the second and fourth
mark the position of the back spoke. Two holes are then bored in each
mortise in succession, after which they are squared out with proper
chisels. Truth of eye and skill of hand are the workmen’s only guide
in this operation, though it is evident that it is the most important
operation of the whole, as upon it depend the accuracy and solidity
of the wheel when finished. The tenons of the spokes are then cut to
fit the mortises, parallel in their thickness, but in width they are
cut slightly taper-wise, _i.e._ the extremity of the tenon is made
about the same size as the mortise, but at the shoulder it is about
one sixteenth of an inch larger, so as to make sure of the tenon
filling the mortise when driven home.

[Illustration: Fig. 13.]

Before cutting the mortises the stock should be fixed at some
convenient angle, regulated by the amount of dish it is intended to
give the wheel. This is particularly necessary, or when the felloes
come to be fitted, if the mortise-cutting has been done in a slovenly
way, the dish will not exist at all, or if it does it will be in the
wrong direction.

Each alternate spoke is now driven in by the blows of a mallet to a
perfectly close bearing of the shoulder of the tenon, the workman
guiding it as best he can. But it is evident that the position that
the spokes will take is by no means certain. Owing to the wedge-like
form given to the tenon, the spokes are driven home very tight, and
wood not being of a homogeneous texture will yield more in one part
than in another; and the mortise, cut in the way that it is, must be
to some extent uncertain. Every alternate spoke being driven, or
those in the same plane, the remainder are driven in between them in
the same manner.

[Illustration: Fig. 14.]

In Fig. 13, _b_, _b_, _b_, are the mortises for the face spoke, and
_c_, _c_, _c_, the mortises for the back spoke. Fig. 14 shows a
section of an ordinary spoke, the hatched part showing the form of
the greater part of its length, and the plain lines completing the
rectangle show the extent of the swelling at the shoulder of the
tenon at the nave.

[Illustration: Fig. 15.]

Fig. 15 shows a very handy adjunct to the wheelwright’s shop; it is
called the “centring square.” It is found extremely useful in marking
and setting out the mortises for the spokes. Its construction is very
simple, being but a T square, whose stock is the segment of a circle.
A is the blade, B the circular stock, the extremities of which should
be protected by steel or brass, or, better still, have a steel edge
round the whole of the inner surface of the stock, so that it will
always keep true; for if it wears at all, of course its true circular
form will be destroyed, and it will be rendered useless. And another
important thing should be borne in mind, and that is to make the
upper edge, C, of the blade in a line with the centre of the curve
from which the circular head is struck; the reason of this will be
apparent to the most obtuse, for unless the lines radiate from the
given centre it is useless for the wheelwright’s purpose.

After the spokes have been driven in they are shaved off by the
spokeshave to their proper form, Fig. 14; and the lengths being
measured from the nave, the outer tenons are cut, sometimes square,
sometimes cylindrical, but leaving the back shoulder square to abut
on the felloe with greater firmness. In the manner of tonguing there
is a great deal of difference of opinion amongst wheelwrights;
that the tongues in size should be slightly in excess of the hole
or mortise to receive them, is a generally received idea, but a
difference of opinion exists as to the length. But certainly it seems
more reasonable to cut the tongues a little _shorter_ than the length
of the hole in the felloe to receive them, because when the tyre is
put on it shrinks in cooling and draws up all the joints. Now suppose
the tongues are a little longer than the holes, the shrinking of the
tire causes it to press on these; and as they are firmly fixed at the
nave, there is no escape for them, and the result is that the spoke
is seriously crippled. It is fair to say that there are many good
practical men who work in this latter way, and with to all appearance
good results, but it is evident that the principle is not a good one.

One of the difficulties in making light carriage wheels is to get the
spoke tightly into the felloe without splitting it, and the manner
of accomplishing this is more successfully done, not by making the
tongue on the spoke so large that it will fill the hole in the felloe
of itself, but by making the tongue rather smaller and slitting the
edges after it has been driven in, and then wedging up with small
wedges, just in the same manner that a joiner would wedge up the
mortises and tenons of a door.

When the wheel is so far progressed with it is laid on the ground,
and the felloes are ranged round it in the order they are to be
fitted. It is of the greatest importance that the holes should be
bored in the felloe in an exact radial line from the nave; if this is
not done, the spoke will have to be strained out of the straight line
in order to get it into the hole; this will put an undue pressure
upon it, and it is very likely that before the wheel has been long in
use the spoke will break off short at the felloe. The exact position
of all the mortises and joints should, therefore, be worked out on a
full-sized drawing, and this being accurately done, there will not
be much danger of going wrong. As the construction of a wheel is
somewhat analogous to the arch, it is considered that by giving the
felloes a number of joints the strength of the wheel is very much
increased. Whether this be so or not must be left to the theorists
to determine, as we have no trustworthy results from the various
experiments under this heading.

The number of felloes in a wheel is decided by its size and number
of spokes, two spokes being driven into each felloe. For an
ordinary-sized brougham the felloes should be seven in number for the
hind wheels, and six for the front wheels, or fourteen and twelve
spokes respectively. For the purpose of connecting the felloes, a
dowel or pin is cut on the end of one of them, and a corresponding
hole bored on another, and they are fitted together; in common work
holes are bored in each felloe, and an independent pin of hard wood
or iron fitted into them. There is less time and labour consumed in
this latter method; but the felloes constructed on this plan are not
very reliable, and their weakness is soon shown by what is known as
“dropping,” which is simply caused by the wear and tear to which
wheels are subject working the dowels in the holes and enlarging them
(the holes), and destroying the truth of the joint, which loss is
soon discovered by the play or freedom given to the felloes allowing
them to slip out of their place. But it must be borne in mind that
this defect is just as liable to take place in felloes put together
in the other way if the holes are not truly bored, and the joints are
not well fitted.

The following directions as to putting on the tires are given in the
“Coachmaker’s Handbook,” an American work:—

“First examine the wheels and see what condition they are in for the
tire, so that we can determine what draught to give them. See if the
felloes are drawn snug on the shoulder of the spokes, and how much
open there is in the rim; for instance, one set we will suppose to
be 1½-inch felloe, open ³⁄₁₆ of an inch, give a good ¼-inch draught;
1⅜-inch felloe, ³⁄₁₆ open, just ¼-inch draught; 1¼-inch felloe, ³⁄₁₆
open, ³⁄₁₆-draught, and so on.

“Now in determining what draught to give the above wheels, we
supposed them all to be good, sound, hard, hickory felloes; if the
felloes are of soft timber just give them a trifle more draught. If
the wheels should be above ¼-inch dish, the felloes would want only
one-half the opening, but give them the same draught as the above. In
running the tire, lay all the above tire in sets on the floor, roll
the wheels on them, and allow 1 inch for taking up in bending; then
mark the end of the nave with chalk, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., and the tire
with a sharp cold chisel mark I., II., III., IV., &c. Then straighten
on a block set up endwise about 2 feet high, a little concave or
hollow in the centre, letting the helper strike while the smith
manages the tires until the kinks are all taken out of them. Then
bend one end a little, so that it can be got into the machine, and
take pains to get them as round as possible.

“In running the wheels with a ‘traveller,’ a wedge must be driven in
one of the joints of the felloe for the purpose of tightening the
other joints in the rim. Then get the length of the felloe, and in
running the tire cut it ⅛ inch shorter than the rim measures. In this
explanation we are supposed to have steel tire, and we have a kind
of steel tire now that is very high and difficult to weld, and there
are many smiths that will profit by this lesson if they attend to the
precaution we give. This tire steel will not stand as heavy heat as
even cast steel, and if it is over-heated in the least it will crack
or break in two while hot.

“There is one peculiar fact connected with it that we find in no
other kind of steel, and that is this: it is apt to slip, however
good the heat, and to obviate this, after scaffing the ends down
to a sharp edge, make a rather sharp lap, and while hot take a
sharp-pointed punch and punch a hole nearly through both laps, and
drive in a sharp pin made of ³⁄₁₆-inch steel wire and ½ inch long.
This will not show on the outside of the tire when on the wheel,
neither does it weaken the tire like a rivet. We have often seen
tires broken where the rivet went through.

“In welding, first have your fire perfectly clean, the coal pretty
well charred, and the fire hot, but rather small, for the smaller the
fire, if hot, the less it will waste your tire each side of the weld;
have the borax charred; put a little on the weld while hot, pull the
fire open with the poker and place the lap in the hottest part; roll
a few pieces of coked coal on the weld, blow steadily, carrying your
tire back and forward through the fire, or stop the blast a moment
until the lap is heated alike all through; take it out and weld with
hammer and sledge. With this precaution you will never fail getting
a good welding heat, and need not upset your tire before welding. If
your tire is upset before welding it makes the lap so much thicker
that before it can be heated through alike there is a liability to
over-heat, and waste away the tire on each side of the weld.

“In laying the tires down the heaviest should be laid at the bottom,
and levelled with brick, so that the tire will rest permanently on
every brick or bearing, and the rest laid on top the way they will
fit best, to prevent warping the tire in the fire. A level stone
should be used to lay the wheel on when the tire is put on. If the
tires do not get warped in the fire do not hammer them at all,
without there are some kinks left in the tires in fitting them; avoid
hammering if possible, for it marks the tire; cool off, gradually
pouring the water on out of the spout of a tea-kettle until it
shrinks enough so it can be taken up; then roll it in soap-water
to prevent it from hardening, until it is so cool that it will not
burn the felloes, truing up while the helper is rolling it in the
water with a mallet covered with thick leather at both ends; let
the third person take the wheel and finish truing the tire with a
leather-covered mallet; while it is so hot that you cannot bear your
hand on it the felloes move easily under the tire, and it should not
be moved after it has cooled off if it can be otherwise avoided,
for this reason, when the tire gets cold all its roughness and
imperfections become embedded in the felloe.”

“The tire once moved will move the easier next time. After the tires
are all on examine the wheels, and see if there are any crooked spots
in the tire that do not set down to the rim; should there be any,
heat a short piece of iron and lay on the tire, it will soon heat
it enough to burn the felloe, but take it off before that time, and
rap it down with a hammer. It is a bad practice to heat the tires on
a forge as some do, for in truing them in fitting we have to bend
them cold, and if heated on the forge and one place red hot, you
will often find there a short crook edgewise. If some of the wheels
are dished more than the others, put them on the off-side of the
carriage. Never take a tire off if it can be avoided, without it is
so loose or tight as to spoil the wheel when run.”

When the tire has got sufficiently cold it is riveted to the felloe
by countersunk rivets, one on each side of the felloe joints.

The strength or weakness of wheels plays an important part in the
durability of the vehicle, for in whatever manner the various forces
are mechanically met they at last concentrate themselves on the
wheel; it is highly necessary, therefore, that great pains should
be taken in constructing them. The stock is not necessarily the
foundation on which to build a wheel, and, further, there are many
objections to its being so constituted. In the first place, when
its centre is all scooped out for the reception of the axle-box,
and its sides are mortised out to receive the ends of the spokes,
it is nothing but a mere shell. Every mortise hole is more or less
a receptacle for water, which the best workmanship cannot wholly
exclude; and as one part of the stock is always more porous than
another, that is the part that will soonest absorb wet and begin
to decay. If, therefore, the stock could be dispensed with greater
durability would be insured.

[Illustration: Fig. 16.]

[Illustration: Fig. 17.]

A thoughtful inventor, turning over these things in his mind, has,
during the last few years, produced a wheel of novel construction,
which is found practically to be superior to the one in common use.
All the spokes, instead of being shouldered down to enter the stock,
are made wedge-shaped at the end, and instead of the wheel being
constructed from the centre to the felloe, it is constructed from the
felloe to the centre. Every felloe is made and fitted with its two
spokes, which, as they converge towards the centre, press upon each
other in such a manner that when the whole periphery is put together
a solid centre is produced by the spokes themselves, as shown in
Figs. 16 and 17; so that instead of being dependent on wooden stocks
the spokes are dependent upon each other, and by being tightly wedged
together create a mutual support and resistance. The whole are
secured by two metal flanges, one at the back and one at the front of
the centre of the wheel, which are tightly screwed up, by which means
the greatest amount of solidity is obtained for the entire structure
of the wheel.

This invention is due to the Messrs. McNeile Brothers, of the
Patent Steam Wheel and Axle Company, and it is a significant fact
that wheels similarly constructed have for a considerable time been
adopted by the Royal Artillery; moreover, they have been extensively
used on street cabs, heavy carts, more particularly the latter,
and have invariably maintained their character for superiority.
For ourselves, we can see that a wheel so constructed must possess
peculiar advantages. There is no stock to rot, and the wheel cannot
in any sense be spoke-bound, as is frequently the case with wheels
of ordinary construction, by the mortise in the stock and the bore
in the felloe not ranging in a true line with the spoke. In the
growing desire to produce wheels of light construction, great efforts
have been made to reduce the size of the centre, and the inventors
of these wheels have been very successful in obtaining this object.
At the centre their wheels are exceedingly light and ornamental in
appearance, and to render them still more uniform they have shortened
the arm of their axles, and consequently curtailed the length of
the axle-box, so that there is the smallest possible projection at
the centre of the wheel. At the same time all the advantages and
peculiarities of Collinge’s principle are retained. In the ordinary
Collinge axle the bearing is not upon the whole length of the arm,
and practically speaking Messrs. McNeile have in their axles cut out
all that part which is useless in this respect, so that although
their axle-arm is considerably shorter, the bearing is the same as in
the Collinge axle of ordinary construction.

One of the greatest disadvantages in the manufacture of wheels is the
want of uniformity between one another. Scarcely any two wheels are
alike. Scarcely any spokes in a wheel radiate alike; some are as much
as an inch apart more than others at the felloe; and as the shrinking
of the tire varies, some wheels, as a consequence, get more dish
than others, the spokes either compressing in the nave mortises, or
yielding by elasticity in the direction of their length. To get them
at all accurate, it is necessary to employ very skilful workmen, and
as skilful workmen are not so numerous as they might be, the cost of
wheels is very much increased. Another disadvantage attends them: a
workman may put his work badly together, and there is no means of
detecting it till the wheel is in actual use. A badly framed wheel
will show as well to the eye as a good one, and until it breaks down,
no one, whether maker or customer, can detect the inaccuracy. Unless
the master watches every wheel while the spokes are driving he can
only depend on the good faith of his workmen.

There is no remedy for this evil except substituting machines for
men’s hands. The machine, if it cuts true once, will cut true always.
Every piece of wood in a wheel ought to be shaped by machinery. The
felloes should be sawn to their exact size, curve, and length by
machine saws; they should be bored by machine augurs, and rounded by
machine shavers. The spokes should be tenoned by machine saws, and
shaped by machine lathes. The naves should be cut by a machine lathe,
and the mortises in the same cut by a machine chisel. The spokes
should not be driven in by the irregular strokes of a mallet, but
be forced into their places by the regular pressure of a machine.
And when the tire is put on the wheel should be fixed in a frame,
in order to preserve an exact size and shape. When all these things
are done, we may hope to procure wooden wheels alike in form and
quality, and moreover, accurately circular, which very often they
are not at present. All the machines should be worked by a steam
engine. There is scarcely any article of manufacture for which there
is so large a demand, and there is no great variation in their mode
of construction. Coachmakers generally seem to cling to the old
traditions of their craft with great tenacity; possibly they think
it savours of sacrilege to let progress enter their workshops too
rapidly.

The above remarks may be qualified by stating that some of the
largest manufacturers have introduced machinery, generally, into
the departments in which it is applicable, and more particularly
in the wheelwrights’ department. Some years since Messrs. Holmes,
of Derby, had mechanical appliances worked by steam power for the
following purposes:—Cutting tenons on the spokes, squaring the ends
of the felloes, also regulating their length according to the size
of wheel required; a narrow upright saw for cutting curved timber;
machine for cutting felloes of the required size and curve; machine
for boring felloes for the ends of spokes, and many other appliances
for lightening hand-labour and insuring greater accuracy in the
manufacture. But workshops filled up in this way are not yet the
rule, though their number is increasing, and so are the inventions
for application of mechanical power to the various processes.

It seems rather paradoxical to state that the dished or conical wheel
is the strongest. But the fact is, its strength arises from the
solid hoop-tyre; with a strake tyre the upright wheel would be the
strongest. When running, the great lateral strain on the wheel is
from the outside. Consequently, if the wheel be dished in an opposite
direction, the thrust will be in the direction of the greatest
resistance. The spokes cannot yield, because in yielding they would
increase the area of the circle, and this the tyre will not permit.
Upon the same principle in carpentry, which constitutes the curved or
cambered beam the strongest, the dished wheel is stronger than the
straight one.

[Illustration: Fig. 18.]

[Illustration: Fig. 19.]

Here is one very important item which must not be overlooked in the
wheelwright department, and that is, the size of the axle-box. The
axle-box is a lining of cast iron, on which the axle-arm takes its
bearing. Two forms of these are given in Figs. 18 and 19.

[Illustration: Fig. 20.]

Fig. 20 shows an improved form of stock. It will be seen it is to
be applied to straight wheels, and requires no further description
beyond noting that the stock is not weakened so much as in the
ordinary way by mortising, an iron band, A, circumscribing the nave
and forming a hold for the spokes.

Wheels should be made with a sufficient number of spokes to properly
divide the space at the felloes, and afford sufficient support to
prevent sinking in between the spokes, and at the same time avoid too
many to weaken the stock. The less the number of spokes, the stronger
the hub and the weaker the felloe. Judgment should be used in
dividing the difference, so as to make each part of the wheel strong
in proportion.




                            CHAPTER VII.

  AXLES.


An axle, or an axletree, for a locomotive wheel vehicle, is that
portion of wood or metal, or both combined, which serves as the axis
or centre for the wheels to turn round on.

The name axle-_tree_ at once indicates the substance originally
employed for it, viz. wood. Axletrees are of two kinds; those which
are fixed firmly in the wheels and revolve in gudgeons beneath the
wheels, and those in which the wheel moves independently of the axle.
The former, as being the rudest, was probably the first kind used.
The earliest fixed axletrees were simply pieces of hard timber,
with the ends rounded down into a conical form, that form being the
easiest to fit to the wheel. Subsequently they were plated with iron
to resist wear.

In the earliest iron axles the conical form was still preserved, for
the obvious reason of easy adjustment to the wheel. These iron axles
were not made in a solid piece, but were merely short ends bedded in
and bolted to a wooden centre. Examples of these axles may still be
seen in heavy carts and waggons.

The next improvement was to make the axles of a single bar of iron,
and this practice has now become common. An axle is technically
divided into three parts—the two _arms_, or extremities, on which
the wheel revolves, and the _bed_, or that portion which connects
the two arms together. The commonest axles, which are manufactured
for the sake of greater cheapness, are formed of a square bar simply
rolled to shape between mill rollers. This iron is uncertain in its
quality, as it is liable to have sand cracks, blisters, and other
imperfections, which cause axletrees when made from it to break down
under strong concussion. To guard against this, the best axletrees
are formed of several flat bars or rods of iron welded together in a
mass; this is technically called “faggoting.” If you wish to discover
whether an axle has been made in this way heat it to a red heat,
and if it has been faggoted the grain or lines of the rods of iron
running in different directions will be plainly discerned. The size
is regulated by the weight it is intended to carry.

For a very heavy coach from 2 to 2¼ inches in diameter and 10 to 11
inches long in the arm is a fair size. For light carriages, both
four and two-wheeled, 1½ inches in diameter and 8 inches length in
the arm is a common size. Occasionally some are made as small as 1¼
inches in diameter. It should be remarked that a less size of axle
would perform the work required of it if it were stationary, as in
mill-work; but for locomotive vehicles it is necessary to provide
against the greatest concussion they can meet with in ordinary
application.

When iron axles were first used it was customary to drive an iron
ring or hoop, 2 or 3 inches broad, into either end of the nave, to
prevent too rapid wear. This plan is still used occasionally in
heavy carts, but otherwise axles are always fitted with iron boxes,
adjusted to the arms with more or less accuracy, according to the
price and the material used for lubrication. For the prevention of
friction in wooden axles soap or black-lead is the best materials;
for common, coarse axles, a thick unctuous grease is the best
adapted; but for axles that are accurately made and fitted to the
boxes there is no lubricating material equal to oil of the purest
kind which can be prepared, _i.e._ freest from mucilage or gelatine,
according as it may be of vegetable or animal production.

The commonest axles now used are of a conical form, with a box of
plate iron fitted to them. This box is made by welding the two edges
of the iron together in a broad projecting seam, which helps to
secure it to the nave. The inside of the box is sunk into hollows for
the purpose of holding the lubricating grease. At the upper end of
the arm the axle is left square, and against this a large iron washer
is usually shrunk on hot. Against this washer the box works. To
secure the wheel against coming off a small iron collar is placed on
the reduced outer end of the arm, and a linch-pin is driven through
the arm beyond it.

An improvement on this kind of axle is when the collar at the upper
end or shoulder is made solid by welding, and a screw nut with a
linch-pin through it is substituted for the collar and linch-pin.
These nuts are commonly made six-sided, with a mortise or slot for
the linch-pin through each side, in order to afford greater facility
for adjustment. In all other particulars this axle is the same as the
last, except that it is occasionally case-hardened to prevent wear
and friction.

In travelling, these axles require to be fresh greased every two or
three days, and the trouble thus caused is very considerable, besides
the risk of omission, in which case the axle is likely to be entirely
spoiled.

The commonest kind of oil axle is called the “mail,” because the
peculiar mode of fastening was first used in the mail coaches. The
arm is not conical, but cylindrical, in the improved kind. At the
shoulder of this axle a solid disc collar is welded on for the box
to work against. Behind this shoulder collar revolves a circular
flange-plate of wrought iron, pierced with three holes corresponding
with holes in the wheel from front to back, through which long
screw-bolts are driven, and their nuts screwed sufficiently tight
against the circular flange-plate to allow easy motion. The wheel,
when in motion, thus works round the shoulder collar, while the
flange-plate secures it against coming off. This is not neat or
accurate, but it is simple and secure, and no nut or linch-pin is
required to the axle in front, while the front of the nave can be
entirely covered in. When screwed up for work, a washer of thick
leather is placed between the shoulder collar and the box, and
another between the shoulder collar and the circular disc, which
extends over the whole surface of the back of the nave. The box of
this axle is of cast iron. The front is closed with a plate of metal,
between which and the end of the axle-arm a space is left of about
1 inch as a reservoir for oil, which is poured in through a tube
passing through the nave of the wheel and closed by a screw pin. At
the back of the box there is a circular reservoir for oil, ¾ inch in
depth and ½ inch wide. When the wheel is in motion the revolving of
the box keeps the lubricating material in circulation between the
two reservoirs; any portion getting below the arm at the shoulder
gradually works its way out and is wasted. The oil in the back
reservoir does not waste by leakage so rapidly as that in the front;
but when the leather washer becomes saturated with water the oil is
liable, by reason of its lightness, to float on the water in or about
the washer, and thus get wasted.

This axle requires frequent examination when very much in use; but as
it is neat in appearance, and under ordinary circumstances tolerably
safe in working, and is not very expensive, it is much used. Both
axle-box and axle-arm are case-hardened.

The other kind of axle used by carriage-builders is that known as
“Collinge’s Patent.” The original intention of the inventor was to
make it a cylindrical arm, with the box running round it against a
coned shoulder, and secured by a coned nut in front; but, as it was
found in practice that a leather washer was necessary at the shoulder
to prevent jarring, this part of the plan was abandoned.

The commonest form of this axle now in use consists of a cylindrical
arm with a broad shoulder collar. The box is of cast iron, and the
back of it is similar to that of the mail axle before described. The
front of it has a rebate cut in the box to receive a small conical
collar and the screw of an oil cap. The arm of the axle is turned
down in the lathe to two-thirds of the total thickness from the point
where the rebate of the box begins. A flat side is filed on this
reduced portion, and along it is made to slide a small collar of gun
metal, with a conical face in the interior to fit against the coned
interior of the rebate in the box. Against this collar, technically
called the “collet,” a nut of gun metal is screwed, and against
that again a second nut of smaller size, with a reversed thread, is
tightly fixed. These two nuts, thus screwed in different directions,
become as firm as though they were part of the axle itself, and no
action of the wheel can loosen them, because the collet, which does
not turn, removes all friction from them. But, as a further security,
the end of the axle-arm projects beyond the farthest nut, and is
drilled to receive a spring linch-pin. Over all a hollow cap of gun
metal is screwed into the end of the box. This contains a supply of
oil for lubricating purposes.

When the wheel is in motion the oil is pumped upwards from the cap
and passes along the arm to the back reservoir, constantly revolving
round the cap with the wheel. If the cap be too full of oil—that is,
if the summit of the column of oil in the cap be at a horizontal
level above the leakage point at the shoulder—it will pump away
rapidly, and be wasted till it comes to the level of the leak, where
it will be economically used. It is essential to the perfection of an
oil action that the oil should not be permanently above the level of
the leak, but that small portions should be continually washing up
into that position by the action of the wheel in turning.

In order to insure their greater durability and freedom from
friction these axles and their boxes are always case-hardened, _i.e._
their rubbing surfaces are converted into steel to a trifling depth
by the process of cementation with animal charcoal for about two
hours, when they are plunged into water. The boxes are ground on to
the arms with oil and emery, either end being applied alternately,
until a true fit between the two is accomplished.

The mode in which oil acts as a lessener of friction is by its being
composed of an infinite number of movable globules, over which the
fixed surfaces of the arm and box roll without causing that friction
and wearing away which would be the result of the two iron surfaces
worked together without any lubricant. This saving in the wear and
tear of the axle-arm is accomplished by the destruction of the oil.
From this we deduce that the greater the mass of oil or grease used
the longer will the axle run, and in order to facilitate this as much
as possible there should be so much space left between the bearing
surfaces of the arm and the box as will allow of a film of oil to be
between them.

A highly polished surface is desirable in an axle and box, as the
bearing is more perfect and true. A rough surface is a surface of
sharp angles, which will pierce through the oil and cause friction by
contact.

To guard against the axle running dry, the arm is reduced in
thickness at the centre for about an inch to allow a lodgment for the
oil, and in the process of working this constitutes a circular pump,
which draws up the oil from the front cap and distributes it over the
area of the arms. But this, of course, will soon run dry, so that the
best remedy to prevent the oil being exhausted and the sticking of
the axle-arm in the box is careful attention.

A danger arising from careless fitting is the introduction of grit
into the box. This grit is composed of small grains of silex, which
is very much harder than iron or steel; the consequence is that it
cuts and scores the bearing surfaces in all directions, and keys
them firmly together, so that it is sometimes necessary to break the
box to pieces in order to get it off the arm.

A patent was taken out to remedy these defects by casting three
longitudinal triangular grooves in each box. The advantages gained
by this are, that if grit gets in it finds its way to the bottom of
the grooves and does not interfere with the action of the wheel, and,
moreover, the grooves keep up a constant surface of oil in contact
with the arm, instead of trusting to the mere capillary attraction.
This does not interfere with the bearing surface in any marked degree.

In order that the axle shall be perfect the following considerations
are necessary:—

  That there be sufficient bearing surface for the arm to
  rest on.

  That the box be of a convenient shape for insertion in the
  wheel.

  That as large a body of oil as possible be kept in actual
  contact with the arm by washing up as the wheel revolves.

  That the column of oil may be in no case above the horizontal
  level of the leakage point while the wheel is at rest.

_Welding Steel Axles._

Many axles are now made of Bessemer steel. Generally speaking this
is neither more nor less than iron, the pores of which are filled
up with carbon or charcoal. The higher the steel the more carbon it
contains. If steel be heated it loses a portion of this carbon, and
the more it is heated the more it approaches its original state, viz.
iron.

The welding of steel axles is said to be considerably assisted by the
use of iron filings and borax. This is only true in case the steel
should be over-heated, and even then only in degree.

Borax by itself is a very useful adjunct to this process, and it
should have a small quantity of sal-ammoniac added, to assist its
fusion or melting. The furnace or fire, which is to be used for the
welding process, should be clean and free from new coal, to prevent
sulphur getting on the steel. Of course, all coal has more or less
sulphur in it; but iron or steel cannot be successfully welded when
there is much sulphur in the fire, so it is well to be as careful in
this respect as possible.

Place the ends of the axles in a clean bright fire, heat to a bright
red heat, take them out, lap them over each other, and give them a
few smart blows with the sledge. Now well cover them with powdered
borax, and again put them into the fire and cover them up with coked
coal, give a strong even blast, and carefully watch the appearance
of the steel as the heat penetrates it, and see that all parts of
the weld are equally well heated. When the heat is raised as high
as the steel will safely bear (this knowledge can only be gained by
experience, so no rule can be given for ascertaining the degree of
heat, as it varies with the quality of the steel) take them out.
Have two men ready to use the sledges. Place the axles on the anvil,
securing them to prevent their slipping, and while one man places
his hammer full on the weld, give the extremity of the lap or weld a
smart blow or two, and if it adheres then both sledges can be applied
until a true and workmanlike weld is formed.

It sometimes happens that when the axles are heated ready for
welding and lapped, a light or a heavy blow, instead of uniting the
laps, only jars them apart. This is a sure sign that they have been
over-heated, and in this case it will be very difficult to form a
weld at all. The only way of getting over this difficulty is to heat
it to as high a degree as necessary, and put it in a vice and screw
it up; the surfaces will adhere in this way when the other means fail.

Another cause of failure is the too free use of borax. If too much is
used, it melts and runs about in the fire, unites with the dirt, and
generally blocks up the nozzle of the blast, causing a great deal of
trouble to dislodge. If the blast is not sufficient, then less heat
is generated than is necessary, and it is impossible to form a good
weld unless sufficient heat is applied.

Steel axles do not find great favour with the trade, although a
large quantity of them are used. They are unreliable, breaking and
fracturing without a moment’s warning, whereas an axle of faggoted
iron would only twist under the same circumstances, and could easily
be re-forged and set right again.


_Setting Axles._

Setting axles is giving them the bend and slope required, in order
to fall in with the principles of the dished wheel. It is chiefly
applied to the axle-arm, and this is the most important part, setting
the beds being mere caprice.

The great object to be obtained is, to give the arm the right pitch
every way, to make the carriage run easy and as light as possible,
even in the absence of a plumb spoke. All carriages do not look best,
when running, with the bottom spoke plumb or vertical. In some of the
heavier coaches or carriages more slope or “pitch” has to be given to
the arm to carry the wheel away from the body, so as to bring them to
some specified track, in order to suit some particular customer, so
that we must be governed by circumstances.

There is a patent “axle-set,” but it is not of much assistance, for
half the smiths know nothing about it, and if they did it would not
be generally used, as the advantages derived from its use are not
equal to the trouble of using it. Besides, the wheels are not always
dished exactly alike, and it would require adjusting to each variety
of wheel; and again, the wheels are not always (though they ought to
be) ready; and when the smith knows the sort of vehicle he is working
upon he can give his axles the required pitch, within half a degree
or so, and the patent axle-set is, unfortunately, not capable of
being adjusted to an idea.

[Illustration: Fig. 21.]

Fig. 21 shows a contrivance for setting the axles when cold, and
consists of an iron bar A, 2 feet 1 inch long, and about 2 inches
square at the fulcrum B. A hole is punched through the end to allow
the screw C to go through; this hole to be oval, to allow the screw
to move either way. At the end of this screw is an eye of sufficient
size to go on to the axle-arm. In setting the axle the eye is slipped
on to about the centre of the arm; the clevis, D, is placed on the
bar A, near the end; the fulcrum, B, is placed at the shoulder,
either on top or underneath, according as the axle may be required to
set in or out. When the fulcrum is laid on top, a strip of harness
leather should be placed on the axle bed, and on that, an iron E,
of the shape of the axle bed, and on the end of this the fulcrum is
placed; then by turning the screw the axle may be bent or set to any
required pitch.

[Illustration: Fig. 22.]

[Illustration: Fig. 23.]

The figure shows the two ways of doing this, one with the bar or
lever on top and the other with the lever below.

Figs. 22 and 23 show two improved forms of axles.

[Illustration: Fig. 24.]

Fig. 24 shows another variety of the axle-set. It consists of a bar
hooked on to the axletree in two places. The bar is fastened by
the clamp M, and fulcrum block F. The eyebolt, L, is hooked over
the end of the spindle or arm, and the adjustment of the latter is
accomplished by the screw, S, and the nuts J, K.

             WEIGHT OF ROUND IRON PER FOOT.
       --------------------+-----------------------
        Diameter.          | Diameter.
          Inch.     lbs.   |   Inch.     lbs.
                           |
           ¼        ·163   |    2⅜      14·7
           ⅜        ·368   |    2½      16·3
           ½        ·654   |    2⅝      18·0
           ⅝       1·02    |    2¾      19·7
           ¾       1·47    |    2⅞      21·6
           ⅞       2·00    |    3       23·5
          1        2·61    |    3⅛      25·5
          1⅛       3·31    |    3¼      27·6
          1¼       4·09    |    3⅜      29·8
          1⅜       4·94    |    3½      32·0
          1½       5·89    |    3⅝      34·4
          1⅝       6·91    |    3¾      36·8
          1¾       8·01    |    4       41·8
          1⅞       9·20    |    4¼      47·2
          2       10·4     |    4½      53·0
          2⅛      11·8     |    5       65·4
          2¼      13·2     |
       --------------------+-----------------------

            WEIGHT OF SQUARE IRON PER FOOT.
     ----------------------+-----------------------
     Side of Square.       | Side of Square.
          Inch.      lbs.  |    Inch.        lbs.
                           |
           ¼         ·208  |     2⅜          18·8
           ⅜         ·468  |     2½          20·8
           ½         ·833  |     2⅝          22·9
           ⅝        1·30   |     2¾          25·2
           ¾        1·87   |     2⅞          27·5
           ⅞        2·55   |     3           30·0
          1         3·33   |     3⅛          32·5
          1⅛        4·21   |     3¼          35·2
          1¼        5·20   |     3⅜          37·9
          1⅜        6·30   |     3½          40·3
          1½        7·50   |     3⅝          43·8
          1⅝        8·80   |     3¾          46·8
          1¾       10·2    |     4           53·3
          1⅞       11·7    |     4¼          60·2
          2        13·3    |     4½          67·5
          2⅛       15·0    |     5           83·3
          2¼       16·8    |
     ----------------------+-----------------------




                            CHAPTER VIII.

  SPRINGS.

Springs in locomotive vehicles are the elastic substances interposed
between the wheels and the load or passengers in order to intercept
the concussion caused by running over an uneven road, or in meeting
with any slight obstacle.

A great variety of substances have been used for this purpose, such
as leather, strips of hide, catgut, hempen cord, &c. but these
have now been totally superseded by metal springs, so that what is
technically understood by the word “spring” is a plate or plates of
tempered steel properly shaped to play in any required mode.

It is very probable that the earliest steel springs were composed
of only one plate of metal. This was very defective in its action;
and unless it was restrained somewhat in the manner of the bow by
the string, it was liable to break on being subjected to a sharp
concussion.

There is no hard and fast rule by which the spring-maker can be
guided so as to proportion the strength and elasticity of his springs
to the load they are required to bear; and even were such a rule in
existence it would be practically useless, because the qualities of
spring steel differ so much that what is known in mathematics as a
“constant” could hardly be maintained. The only guide to the maker in
this respect is observation of the working of certain springs under
given loads, such springs being made of a certain quality of steel,
and any peculiar features that appear should be carefully noted down
for future reference and application.

Springs are of two kinds, single and double; _i.e._ springs tapering
in one direction from end to end, and those which taper in two
opposite directions from a common centre, as in the ordinary elliptic
spring.

The process of making a spring is conducted in the following manner:—

The longest or back plate being cut to the proper length, is hammered
down slightly at the extremities, and then curled round a mandrel
the size of the suspension bolt. The side of the plate which is to
fit against the others is then hollowed out by hammering; this is
called “middling.” The next plate is then cut rather shorter than the
first; the ends are tapered down so as not to disturb the harmony
of the curve. This plate is middled on both sides. A slit is then
cut at each end about ¾ of an inch in length and ⅜ inch wide, in
which a rivet head slides to connect it with the first plate, so
that in whatever direction the force acts these two plates sustain
each other. At a little distance from this rivet a stud is formed
upon the under surface by a punch, which forces out a protuberance
which slides in a slit in the next plate. The next plate goes through
precisely the same operations, except that it is 3 or 4 inches
shorter at each end, and so on with as many plates as the spring is
to consist of. The last plate, like the first, is of course only
middled on one side.

The plates of which the spring is to be composed having thus been
prepared, have next to undergo the process of “hardening” and
“tempering.” This is a very important branch of the business, and
will bear a detailed description. There is no kind of tempering
which requires so much care in manipulation as that of springs. It
is necessary that the plates be carefully forged, not over-heated,
and not hammered too cold; one is equally detrimental with the other.
To guard against a plate warping in tempering, it is requisite that
both sides of the forging shall be equally well wrought upon with
the hammer; if not, the plates will warp and twist by reason of the
compression on one side being greater than on the other.[1]

The forge should be perfectly clean, and a good clean charcoal fire
should be used. Or if coal be used it must be burned to coke in
order to get rid of the sulphur, which would destroy the “life” of
the steel. Carefully insert the steel in the fire, and slowly heat
it evenly throughout its entire length; when the colour shows a
light red, plunge it into lukewarm water—cold water chills the outer
surface too rapidly—and let it lie in the water a short time. Animal
oil is better than water; either whale or lard oil is the best, or
lard can be used with advantage. The advantage of using oil is that
it does not chill the steel so suddenly, and there is less liability
to crack it. This process is called “hardening.”

Remove the hardened spring-plate from the water or oil and prepare to
temper it. To do this make a brisk fire with plenty of live coals;
smear the hardened plate with tallow, and hold it over the coals, but
do not urge the draught of the fire with the bellows while so doing;
let the fire heat the steel very gradually and evenly. If the plate
is a long one, move it slowly over the fire so as to receive the heat
equally. In a few moments the tallow will melt, then take fire, and
blaze for some time; while the blaze continues incline the plate, or
carefully incline or elevate either extremity, so that the blaze will
circulate from end to end and completely envelop it. When the flame
has died out, smear again with tallow and blaze it off as before. If
the spring is to undergo hard work the plates may be blazed off a
third time. Then let them cool themselves off upon a corner of the
forge; though they are often cooled by immersion in water, still it
is not so safe as letting them cool by themselves.

After tempering the spring-plates are “set,” which consists in
any warps or bumps received in the foregoing processes being put
straight by blows from a hammer. Care should be taken to have the
plates slightly warm while doing this to avoid fracturing or breaking
the plates.

The plates are now filed on all parts exposed to view, _i.e._ the
edges and points of the middle plates, the top and edges of the back
plate, and the top and edges of the shortest plate. They are then
put together and a rivet put through the spring at the point of
greatest thickness, and this holds, with the help of the studs before
mentioned, the plates together.

It is evident from the above description of a common mode of making
springs, that the operation is not quite so perfect as it might be.
The plates, instead of being merely tapered at the ends, ought to be
done so from the rivet to the points. And another thing, it would
surely make a better job of it if the plates were to bear their whole
width one on the other; in the middled plates they only get a bearing
on the edges, and the rain and dust will inevitably work into the
hollows in the plates, and it will soon form a magazine of rust, and
we all know what an affinity exists between iron and oxygen and the
result of it; as far as carriage springs are concerned, it very soon
destroys their elasticity and renders them useless and dangerous.

To prevent oxidation some makers paint the inner faces of the
springs, and this is in a measure successful, but the play of the
spring-plates one upon the other is sure to rub off some portions of
the paint, and we are just as badly off as ever. A far better plan
would be to cleanse the surfaces by means of acid, and then tin them
all over, and this would not be very expensive, and certainly protect
the plates of the spring longer than anything else.

The spiral springs, used to give elasticity to the seats, &c., are
tempered by heating them in a close vessel with bone dust or animal
charcoal, and, when thoroughly heated, cooled in a bath of oil. They
are tempered by putting them into an iron pan with tallow or oil,
and shaking them about over a brisk fire. The tallow will soon
blaze, and keeping them on the move will cause them to heat evenly.
The steel springs for fire-arms are tempered in this way, and are
literally “fried in oil.” If a long slender spring is needed with a
low temper, it can be made by simply beating the soft forging on a
smooth anvil with a smooth-faced hammer.


_Setting and Tempering old Springs._

In setting up old springs where they are inclined to settle, first
take the longest plate (having separated all the plates) and bring it
into shape; then heat it for about 2 feet in the centre to a cherry
red, and cool it off in cold water as quick as possible. This will
give the steel such a degree of hardness that it will be liable to
break if dropped on the floor. To draw the temper hold it over the
blaze, carrying backward and forward through the fire until it is so
hot that it will sparkle when the hammer is drawn across it, and then
cool off.

Another mode is to harden the steel, as before stated, and draw the
temper with oil or tallow—tallow is the best. Take a candle, carry
the spring as before through the fire, and occasionally draw the
candle over the length hardened, until the tallow will burn off in a
blaze, and then cool. Each plate is served in the same way.


_Varieties of Springs._

The names given to springs are numerous, but the simple forms are
few, the greater part of the varieties being combinations of the
simple forms.


[Illustration: Fig. 25.]

[Illustration: Fig. 26.]

The simple forms are the elliptic spring, the straight spring, and
the regular curve or C spring (Fig. 25). There are also one or two
forms of spring which have become obsolete. Such are the whip spring
(Fig. 26), and the reverse curved spring, which was superseded by the
last.

The elliptic spring is the one most commonly used at the present
day. Fig. 27, _b_, shows two of these united at the extremities
by means of a bolt; this is called a double elliptic spring.
The elliptic spring is sometimes used single in what are called
under-spring carriages, where the spring rests on the axle and is
connected with the framework of the body with an imitation spring
or dumb iron to complete the ellipse. Its technical name is an
“under-spring.”

When four pairs of these springs are hinged together so as to form
four ellipses they constitute a set, and are used in carriages
without perches. Their technical name is “nutcracker spring.”

The straight springs are used in phaetons and tilburies, and are
called “single-elbow springs.”

The double straight spring is used in omnibuses, carts, &c., where
it is fixed across the angle at right angles. It is called a
“double-elbow spring.”

The regular curved spring is in form generally two-thirds of a
circle, one end of which is lengthened out into a tangent, which
serves as a base to fix it by in an upright position; the body is
suspended from the other extremity by means of leathern braces. Its
general figure has caused it to acquire the technical name of C
spring. (See Fig. 25.)

The combination known as “telegraph spring” consists of eight
straight springs, when used for a four-wheeled carriage, and four
springs for a two-wheeled carriage. The Stanhope is suspended on
four of these springs. Two springs are fixed longitudinally on the
framework, and two transverse ones are suspended from these by
shackles, and on these latter the weight rests. They will bear a
great weight, and the body has the advantage of being placed two
removes from the concussion.

[Illustration: Fig. 27.]

Fig. 27 shows some varieties of springs.

  _a_ Has semi-elliptical springs, hung upon the ends of
  C springs attached to the axles.

  _b_ Has the usual elliptical springs between the bolster and
  axle.

  _c_ Has elastic wooden springs, which connect the axles
  and support the beds.

  _d_ Has some elliptical springs, which also couple the
  axles A and B.

  _e_ Has a bolster hung upon C springs.

  _f_ Is a system of curved springs, with three points of connection
  to the bed and two to the axles.


           WEIGHT OF ELLIPTIC SPRINGS.
  1¼ × 3 × 36 inch, weight about 28 lbs. per pair.
  1¼ × 4 × 36   „        „       34  „      „
  1¼ × 4 × 38   „        „       36  „      „
  1½ × 3 × 36   „        „       37  „      „
  1½ × 4 × 36   „        „       41  „      „
  1½ × 4 × 38   „        „       45  „      „
  1½ × 5 × 36   „        „       48  „      „
  1½ × 5 × 38   „        „       51  „      „
  1½ × 5 × 40   „        „       54  „      „
  1¾ × 4 × 36   „        „       49  „      „
  1¾ × 4 × 38   „        „       52  „      „
  1¾ × 4 × 40   „        „       55  „      „
  1¾ × 5 × 36   „        „       56  „      „
  1¾ × 5 × 38   „        „       60  „      „
  1¾ × 5 × 40   „        „       64  „      „
  1¾ × 6 × 36   „        „       64  „      „
  1¾ × 6 × 38   „        „       68  „      „
  1¾ × 6 × 40   „        „       73  „      „
  2  × 4 × 36   „        „       58  „      „
  2  × 4 × 38   „        „       62  „      „
  2  × 4 × 40   „        „       65  „      „
  2  × 5 × 36   „        „       63  „      „
  2  × 5 × 38   „        „       67  „      „
  2  × 5 × 40   „        „       72  „      „
  2  × 6 × 36   „        „       75  „      „
  2  × 6 × 38   „        „       78  „      „
  2  × 6 × 40   „        „       85  „      „


FOOTNOTES:

[1] It is the plates that are tempered and hardened, not the _spring_.




                             CHAPTER IX.

  WHEEL-PLATES AND FORE-CARRIAGES.


The following is given in the “Coachmaker’s Handbook” under the
heading of “Short and Easy Turning:”—

“To bring a carriage into a different course from a straight one
requires a circular motion, and at half a turn a carriage has
established itself in a right angle to its position when at rest.

“A two-wheeled vehicle turns on one wheel, which forms the centre at
the place where it touches the ground, and the opposite wheel forms
the circle struck from the said centre. The body in this instance
follows the circular motion exactly as the axle, and consequently
maintains a steady position above the wheels.

“A four-wheeled vehicle remains in a straight line when first the
front pair of wheels are turned under, then by the effect of the
draught the hind pair of wheels follow in a wider circle. To effect
a turning we bring the front axle first in a corresponding direction
with the desired turn.

“We make distinction between the moment of turning, or the angular
position of the axles previous to the turning itself, and the
effected turning of a vehicle round a centre or king bolt, according
to the construction of the carriage part. The wheels have to be
brought in a position corresponding with the direction of the
turning. The body must be fully supported after the turning, and the
front or dickey of a carriage must stand in a right angle to fore
axletree.

“We have to consider a few points relative to the height of the front
wheel, and the elevation of the body above the ground, which averages
30 inches. To give a front wheel its proper height (between 3 feet 4
inches and 3 feet 6 inches) and have it turn a full circle, we sweep
the body at the required place, viz. put in the wheel house of a
proportioned length, and a depth between 3 and 4½ inches.

“The front carriage part is fastened round the king bolt, turning
that part horizontal. This action causes the front wheel to describe
a circle, whose diameter is the width of the track; but as the wheel
leans over at the top through the dish, we have a larger circle in
the middle and top of the wheel. We, therefore, first find a top
circle, having a diameter equal to the width between the highest
point of the wheel, and a side circle following the termination of
the cross diameter of the wheel, having as a centre the king bolt.”

[Illustration: Fig. 28.]

In Fig. 28, which is drawn to quarter-inch scale, the horizontal
line A is the axletree, B is the wheel at rest, C is the wheel on
full lock, D is the back of the arch, E shows the circle that the
wheel will describe on the ground as it moves backward, and F is the
circle the back of the wheel will describe in the air at the same
movement. It will be seen by this that when the wheel is on half lock
the back part of it will come in contact with the arch, and that when
on full lock it will have travelled right away from it. It follows,
therefore, that if we want to find out the right position for the
perch bolt to occupy, we must not measure the circle the wheel will
describe on the ground, but the one described in the air. We must,
therefore, measure along the line F, and carry that measurement along
to D.

The length of the line A to D is exactly 3 feet. Now the position of
the perch bolt, or centre point on which the wheels lock round, need
not be, and in fact very rarely is, in the same vertical line as the
axletree. By compassing the beds or timbers on which the fore part of
the body rests and through which the perch bolt passes, the centre
of the circle described by the lock may be carried forward. Thus,
if the beds be compassed 4 inches forwards from the straight line
A along the axle, the centre will be carried forward 4 inches, the
result of which will be, that when on the half lock the back part of
the wheel will be carried away from the arch 2 inches, and that when
on the full lock the wheel will stand 4 inches from the position it
would occupy if the bed were straight. The dotted lines below F and E
in the figure show the result of this difference in the shape of the
bed; and it will be seen that to get a 2-inch clearance of the arch
from the back of the wheel without carrying the wheel itself farther
forward than 3 feet from the back of the arch, we must compass the
bed 4 inches, the compass mark being to the centre of the substance
of the bed.

In the fore-carriages for one-horse vehicles, and two-horse vehicles
as well, the shafts are carried by “open futchells” (F, Fig. 30); and
in the fore-carriages of two-horse vehicles the pole is carried by
“close futchells” (F, Fig. 31).

A reference to the figures will make the following remarks more
clear. The central circle is the wheel-plate, or, as the Americans
term it, the fifth wheel. This is flat at the bottom and round on the
top, and being fitted to the under part of the top carriage takes
its bearing on the bottom carriage, and by its extended circular
formation gives steadiness to the body when the carriage is running
in a straight line, or when the fore-carriage is on full lock. These
bearings are at the back ends and fore part of the futchells, and at
those points of the bottom bed which are covered by the wheel-plate.
The fore and hind bearings are of ash timber, and are necessarily
circular in form.

It will be seen how imperative is the necessity of the wheel-plate
being a perfectly true circle and of its taking a perfectly flat
bearing; the forging and finishing such a piece of work requires,
therefore, peculiar care and skill. In the figure showing the open
futchells, the stays which run from the back end to the front of the
futchells are the wheel-irons, the back-stays, and the bed-clips in
one. They clip over the ends of the bottom bed, and being at these
points made flat, they are cranked downwards to take their bearing on
the spring-block, and here they are fixed to the springs either by
means of bolts passing through them or by clips and couplings. The
best plan is by the latter, as when they are bolted on holes have
to be drilled through the springs, which renders them weak at these
points; the same may be said of the manner of fixing the bottom half
of the spring on to the axle.

The wheel-iron, bed-clip, and back-stay being in one, a good
opportunity is afforded to the smith to display his skill and taste,
as it is desirable that this piece of workmanship should be well
forged and fitted, and at the same time a certain grace of outline
must be given to it, otherwise the appearance of the vehicle will be
spoiled. When it is finished it should fall into its position and
take all its bearings accurately without force being used, for if in
bolting on any strain should be put upon it, in order to get it into
its place, it will be liable to snap on meeting with an obstacle on a
rough road.

The English coachsmith ought to possess a better knowledge of
metallurgy than he does. All smiths get a certain rule-of-thumb
knowledge, but what they should possess is a thorough scientific
knowledge of the properties of the metals they are dealing with. We
cannot enlarge here upon the subject, but the artisan will do well to
study a work like “Metallurgy of Iron,” in Weale’s Series; and if it
only teaches him to tell accurately the good qualities of metal from
the bad, he will have a greater knowledge than a large number of
coachsmiths have. For general purposes it is as well that he should
know that perfectly pure iron is so soft and tough, and at the same
time so malleable, that it can be rolled into sheets ¹⁄₃₀₀ part of an
inch in thickness; and that when wrought iron can be twisted, cold,
into almost any shape without breaking, he may rest assured that it
is as near pure iron as any one could wish to have for the proper
execution of smith’s work.

[Illustration: Fig. 29.]

Fig. 29 illustrates a light fore-carriage, with drop pole and shafts,
suitable for light phaetons, coupés, and Victorias.

The portion marked A represents the lower part. The new mode of
constructing this carriage is the doing away with the bent futchells
and using puncheons in their places. The inside front-stay is forged
in one piece; in the centre is formed the socket to receive the king
or perch bolt. The stay rests on the top of the two puncheons. There
is a =T= plate formed solid with these stays running back to the bed,
and at C forms the inner part of the socket for receiving the shafts.
The back-stay passes around under the puncheons, crossing the bed to
the front and bolted where the front-stay crosses the puncheons, the
other end extending to the front, forming the outside of the socket
for receiving the shafts. C C represents a piece of hickory bolted
between the two stays.

The following dimensions applicable to the figure may be
useful:—Springs 1½ inches thick, consisting of four plates 37 inches
long, 11½ inches opening, which maybe varied to suit the body of the
carriage they are intended for. Lower bed 1¼ by 1⅛ inches; ⅜ inch
plate on the bottom. Wheel or stay-iron ½ inch round, increasing the
size to the puncheons. The box clips over the bottom bed with clip
bars, which are worked solid. The clips are put on from underneath
the springs, and are secured by nuts on the top. The size of the
half-wheel iron is 1 inch by ½ inch.

The portion of the figure marked B gives the upper portion of the
fore-carriage.

[Illustration: Fig. 30.]

Fig. 30 shows a fore-carriage with open futchells. A A is where
the stiff bar detaches to receive the shaft of the drop poles, the
futchells extending to A A. The wheel-iron or stay on the outside
of the futchell extends ahead 5½ inches, and also the plate on the
inside of the futchells the same distance. These irons require to be
a good thickness and tapering to the end. The blocks are fitted on to
this space and scrolled at the end. The dimensions given for Fig. 29
will apply to this, and it is used for the same light vehicles, only
that a pair of horses are used instead of one.

[Illustration: Fig. 31.]

Fig. 31 shows an arrangement adapted for hard service. With this kind
of wheel-plate we get a good bearing when it is turned under the
body. These are made solid, with a plate on the two beds. A is the
perch bolt.




                             CHAPTER X.

  IRON AND METAL-WORK GENERALLY.—LAMPS.—PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION.

In addition to the foregoing, a large quantity of expensive ironwork
is used in the construction of carriages; the principal cause of
which expense is not the cost of the material, but the highly skilled
labour which is necessary in preparing it.

In carriages suspended from C springs, the front and hind wheels are
connected by a central longitudinal timber, called a perch. This has
to be plated with iron in order to prevent its breaking when running
over bad ground; and without this precaution there is great danger
of the perch giving way, as owing to its curved form, which follows
the contour of the body, it is necessary to cut across the grain, and
thus weaken the timber.

These wooden perches have, to some extent, been superseded by
wrought-iron perches, as previously mentioned, and these have been
found to answer admirably.

In C spring carriages there are the loops, which serve to suspend the
body; and these require very good workmanship, for they are curved
in many opposite directions, are tapered and irregularly formed
every way, yet requiring to have bearing bolts accurately adjusted,
and sundry contrivances for affixing ironwork to them, and all this
without a single square side for the mechanic to work from. They are
samples of great mechanical skill and dexterity of hand.

Other carriage ironwork may be generally divided into stays, plates,
hoops, clips, bolts, steps, treads, joints, shackles, and jacks.

Stays are iron brackets of various forms, bolted by their extremities
to such parts as they are intended to sustain or strengthen, but they
do not take a bearing on any part.

Plates are irons which take a bearing throughout their length and
breadth on the part they are intended to strengthen, and to which
they are fastened by bolts, screws, or rivets.

Hoops are flat straps of iron riveted or welded together, for the
purpose of securing timbers together side by side.

Clips are a kind of open hoops, the ends of which have a thread run
upon them in order to take nuts. The purposes for which they are
used is to screw springs and axles in their places without having to
weaken them by drilling holes through them.

[Illustration: Fig. 32.

AXLE CLIP

CARRIAGE BOLT
POINTED TIRE BOLT
STEP BOLT
ELLIPTIC HEAD PERCH BOLT
=T= HEAD OR SHAFT BOLT
CONE HEAD BOLT
]

Bolts are cylindrical pieces of iron of various sizes (Fig. 32), one
end of which is flattened out to form a head, and the other is formed
into a screw to receive a nut. The use to which they are applied is
to secure the ironwork and heavy framework.

Steps may be single, double, or treble. In the two latter cases they
are made to fold up, and are called folding steps, and may be made to
fold up outside or into the body; this latter is the best way, and if
they be well managed they do not incommode the sitters inside.

Treads are small single steps a few inches square, fixed for the most
part on a single iron stem.

Joints are jointed iron stays, made in the form of the letter S, and
serve to keep the leather heads or hoods of open carriages, such as
landaus, stretched firmly out when required.

Shackles are iron staples, which serve to receive the leather
suspension braces of C spring carriages on the springs; they are also
used for coupling springs together.

Jacks are small windlasses, which serve to receive the ends of the
leather suspension braces after passing round the backs of the
springs. By means of a wrench or winch handle the jacks may be wound
up or let down so as to lengthen or shorten the brace.

Then we have the hinges, which are now concealed in the door pillar,
effecting a great improvement in the appearance of the vehicle,
though it necessitates a somewhat stouter pillar than would otherwise
be necessary.

To preserve the ironwork and steelwork of carriages from rusting,
it is either painted or plated with some metal on which the oxygen
of the air does not act. When it is wished to make it ornamental,
carriage ironwork is plated, in which case it is first covered with
a coat of tin laid on by means of a soldering iron, with rosin and
a small portion of sal-ammoniac in order to promote union between
the two metals. The tin being smoothed, a small portion of silver
or brass, rolled exceedingly thin, is laid on, and by means of the
soldering iron is made to adhere to the tin; more of the plating
metal is then added to join the first by the edges, till the whole
surface is covered. It is then burnished and polished by means of
the proper tools. All articles of iron requiring to be covered with
silver are treated in the same way; small articles of ornament in
brass, which do not require strength, are cut in solid metal, as
it is cheaper by the saving in labour; but for heavy articles, the
weight of the metal would considerably enhance the price, supposing
that strength were not required. Wheel nave hoops, axletree caps,
loops, brace buckles, check rings, and door handles are generally
plated.

The beading, which is used to cover the joints, is of three kinds,
brass, copper, and plated copper. It is formed by strips of metal
being drawn into a circular or angular form by means of a die,
the hollow space being filled with solder, into which small pins
of pointed wire are fixed to attach it by. The brass beading is
polished; the copper is painted, for which purpose the surface
is roughened. As the quantity of beading used is often very
considerable, the labour of silvering by means of a soldering iron
would be too great, and therefore the plated or silvered beading
is prepared from metal silvered in the sheet. The process is very
simple:—A bar of copper being reduced to the proper thickness, a bar
of silver is then united to it by means of heat. They are then passed
through the rolls together, and occasionally annealed in the fire
until the requisite thickness be obtained, the two metals spreading
equally. This kind of metal is much used in the manufacture of
carriage lamps.

Several kinds of lamps are used in carriages, both as regards
principle of construction and form and ornament. In the simplest kind
the light is furnished by the combustion of wax candles, which are
contained in tin tubes, through a hole in the upper part of which the
wick passes, the candle being pressed upwards as fast as it consumes
by a spiral spring. In dress carriages, where the lamps are somewhat
ornamental, wax candles are invariably used on account of their
superior cleanliness, though the light is inferior to that of oil.

Oil is often used on account of its superior illuminating power. The
lamp then simply consists of a tin reservoir for holding the oil, and
a round wick of the most ordinary kind, though sometimes flat for
the sake of spreading the flame. Reflectors of many kinds are used
in every variety of carriage lamps, formed of silvered metal highly
burnished.

Attempts have been made to bring the argand lamp, with a current
of air through the wick, into use, but sufficient success has not
attended these efforts to make them general, owing to their liability
to be suddenly extinguished by violent draughts of wind. This may,
however, be accomplished when the scientific principles of combustion
and the regulation of the draught shall be better understood.

By a common lamp is understood one that feeds the wick with oil by
capillary attraction, the column of oil being below the level of
the flame. An argand lamp, on the contrary, has a column of oil
considerably above the level of the flame and constantly pressing
upwards to it like a fountain. The motion of a carriage has a
tendency to make oil at times flow too rapidly and extinguish the
flame, and sometimes to cause too sudden a rush of air up the central
tube, which blows away the flame from the wick; and when these
difficulties are overcome by ingenuity they become such complicated
pieces of work that it is beyond the ordinary “gumption” of the
servants to trim them properly, and if this be not done the object of
the improvements is defeated.

The principle of constructing an argand lamp, so that it may regulate
its own air draught, is set forth by Lord Cochrane in one of his
patents. It is to divide the lamp into three chambers—one in the
centre, which contains the reflectors and light, surrounded by the
chimney glass, and is pierced with holes at the sides to permit the
egress of the heated air and the ingress of the fresh air. From
this chamber a tube or tubes communicate with the lower chamber,
into which the air tube of the burner descends, and thus furnishes
a regulated supply of air. It is evident by this process the air
rushing in must be regulated by the air rushing out, and _vice versâ_.

The flame of the lamp is not produced by oil or tallow alone, it
requires the oxygen of the air to mix with it in order to sustain
combustion. This may be proved by putting a glass bowl over a candle,
when, as soon as the oxygen is consumed, the light will be seen to
go out, the bowl having the remaining constituent of air left in it,
viz. nitrogen, which will neither support nor assist combustion.
Herein consists the advantage of the argand lamp in furnishing
atmospheric air in the centre of the flame. The flame arising from a
thick wick is hollow, _i.e._ it is a film of light, like a bladder,
and not continuous, the inner portion of the flame being filled with
gas.

It is well known that if the flames of two candles be brought in
contact they will produce a greater intensity of light than if
burned separately. Upon this principle what are technically termed
“cobblers’ candles” are made. For the same reason lamps are sometimes
made to burn two or three wicks, placed just so far apart that the
flames may come in contact. This is an approximation to the argand
principle, by admitting air between them. But there is one difficulty
attending them, viz. the regulating of all the wicks to an equal
height, which would be considerable unless the lamp were so contrived
that all could be regulated by one movement. If this difficulty can
be overcome a very excellent lamp might be made by placing four wicks
in a square.




                             CHAPTER XI.

  PAINTING.

PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING IN PAINTING.


Colours are distinguished by artists as _pure_, _broken_, _reduced_,
_grey_, _dull_, &c.

The pure colours consist of those which are called simple, or
_primary_; these are red, yellow, and blue; and those which are
formed from their mixture in pairs (binary compounds) are termed
_secondaries_: such are orange, violet, green, &c.

Broken colours are formed by the mixture of black with the pure
colours, from the highest to the deepest tone.

A _normal_ colour is a colour in its integrity, unmixed with black,
white, or any other colour.

The mixture of equal parts of red and yellow produces orange; mix
equal portions of yellow and blue and we have green; equal parts of
red and blue produce violet. These are called _secondary colours_.

Three parts of red mixed with 1 part of blue produce violet-red; 3
parts of red and 1 of yellow produce a red-orange; 1 part of red to
3 of yellow produces orange-yellow; 3 parts of yellow to 1 of blue
produce a light yellow-green; 1 part of yellow to 3 of blue produces
a blue-green; 1 part of red to 3 of blue produces a light violet
colour. All these are called _secondary hues_.

Normal grey is black mixed with white in various proportions,
producing numerous tones of pure grey.

Lamp and gas-lights throw out yellowish-coloured rays, causing
a great many light colours to appear different in tone from what
they really are. Certain shades of green and blue are not easily
distinguished by gaslight. A blue fabric will appear to be green, or
of a greenish tone, caused by the yellow rays falling on it. Green
being formed by the mixture of blue and yellow, whatever contributes
yellow to blue, as in the case cited, or by mixture of pigments, the
hue will be green.

When coloured rays fall on a coloured surface, which is lighted by
diffused daylight, the coloured surface is changed, the effect being
the same as that produced by adding to it a pigment of the same
colour as the coloured light. When red rays fall upon a black stuff
they make it appear of a purple black; on white stuff they make it
appear red; yellow stuff they make appear orange; and light blue
stuff they make appear violet.


_Complementary Colours._

“The colour required with another colour to form white light
is called the complementary of that colour. Thus green is the
complementary of red, and _vice versâ_; blue is the complementary
of orange, and _vice versâ_; yellow is the complementary of violet,
and _vice versâ_, because blue and orange, red and green, yellow and
violet, each make up the full complement of rays necessary to form
white light.”

These remarks are deduced from experiments with a prism of glass,
giving the spectrum or analysis of the coloured rays forming white
light. When a ray of sunlight is passed through a triangular prism
of flint glass, and the image received on white paper, it will be
noticed that the spectrum (as the image is termed) consists of
several colours—seven in all. Red, yellow, and blue are the most
prominent. The red rays are modified by the pure yellow, and we have
orange; the yellow rays becoming mixed with the blue become green;
the blue and red give violet.

Look intently for a few moments at a bright red object, then suddenly
transfer the gaze to a sheet of white paper; the paper will appear of
a greenish tint. Reverse the process; look intently at green, then on
white paper, and red will be the tone of the paper. Blue will excite
the eye to see orange, and orange will excite the eye to see blue.
This is called successive contrast. In placing colours near each
other it is of the greatest importance that the painter should bear
in mind the foregoing laws. From these laws the coach-painter may
derive some useful hints. In ornamenting and striping bear in mind
that colours that are complementary purify each other.

The effect of placing white near a coloured body is to heighten that
colour. Black placed near a colour tends to lower the tone of it.
Grey increases the brilliancy and purity of the primary colours, and
forms harmonies with red, orange, yellow, and light green.


_Chiaro-oscuro and Flat Tints._

“There are two systems of painting; one in chiaro-oscuro and the
other in flat tints. The first consists in representing as accurately
as possible upon the flat surface of canvas, wood, stone, metal, &c.,
an object in relief in such manner that the image makes an impression
on the eye of the spectator, similar to that produced by the object
itself. Therefore every part of the image which receives in the model
direct light, and which reflects it to the eye of a spectator viewing
the object from the same point in which the painter himself viewed
it, must be painted with white and bright colours; while the other
parts of the image which do not reflect to the spectator as much
light as the first must appear in colours more or less dimmed with
black, or what is the same thing, by shade.

“Painting in flat tints is a method of imitating coloured objects,
much simpler by its simplicity of execution than the preceding,
which consists in tracing the outline of the different parts of the
model, and in colouring them uniformly with their peculiar colours.”


_Paint Shop._

The paint shop should be a roomy apartment, well lighted and
ventilated. If possible, bodies and carriage parts should have
separate shops to be painted in; the rough work on bodies, too, ought
to have a separate room for its execution.

There should be a good assortment of brushes suitable for every
variety of work, plenty of paint pots, at least two paint mills,
marble slab for mixing colours on, and a stone to be used exclusively
for making putty on; water buckets, sponges, chamois, palette knives,
and putty knives. Light trestles set on casters for light bodies, and
heavy trestles, with two wheels and a pole, for heavy bodies.

Screens, covered with heavy paper or enamelled cloth, to protect
varnished work from floating particles of dust, and also from the
unsightly marks left by flies, will be found very useful.

Also the necessary colours; white-lead, whiting, ground and lump
pumice-stone, &c.

The brushes used are of various sizes and have various names. The
largest are used for covering large surfaces with paint. A smaller
kind are called _tools_, or _sash tools_, the name _tool_ being
applied more especially to the smaller varieties. Those brushes used
for striping and ornamenting, being very small, are called _pencils_.
All these are made round and oval, and filled with various kinds of
bristles.

There are also _flat_ bristle brushes of various sizes, which are
useful for body painting. A small variety of these is also used for
painting the carriage parts.

For varnishing, the black sable and badger brushes (both flat) are
handy, though in applying rubbing varnish, the hair of these is
sometimes too soft to lay it on without its being thinned with
turpentine. But they are capable of producing very finely finished
work.

For painting carriage parts, the medium-sized brushes should be used.
For lead and rough coatings on bodies a larger brush is required than
for carriage parts. Body brushes should be kept separate from those
used for carriage parts, as the latter wear the brush hollow in the
centre, which unfits them for laying a level coat on the body.

The _pencils_ made of sable, camel, and cow-hair. Sable-hair is of
two colours, red and black, either of which is superior to any hair
now used. The red sable-hair is rather finer than the black, and is
rather better adapted for ornamenting, while for striping and lining
the black sable is very suitable. Camel-hair pencils work very well
for broad lines. Those made from cow-hair are not much used.

Ornamenting pencils are either made in quills, or tin-bound with
handles. They are of various sizes, suited for the most delicate
touchings or broad handlings. They should be kept clean, as the
smallest quantity of dry paint in them prevents them working well.
When not in use, they should be greased and put away in such manner
that the points may not be bent.

Lettering pencils, of sable and camel-hair, are commonly used; they
should be from ½ inch to 1 inch long, the shorter ones being used for
filling in after the outlines are traced.

There are three or four kinds of paint mills manufactured. They vary
in size and price, and are suited to the wants of large or small
factories. Where several painters are employed there should be two
paint mills, one kept exclusively for grinding colours, and the other
for lead, filling, pumice-stone, &c. By this means the colours are
not so likely to be soiled by mixture with lead colours or other
rough heavy paints, which clog the mill up so rapidly.

Paint mills have not penetrated into every workshop yet. In some is
still used the old-fashioned slab and muller; this is a more tedious
operation, and is not so successfully accomplished as by the mill.


_Colours._

The colours generally used in the carriage paint shop are the
following:—White-lead, whiting. Yellow ochre and red-lead, used for
rough work. _Ground colours_, which the painter uses in combination
with other pigments, as chrome yellow, Indian red, raw umber,
Prussian blue, &c. _Panel colours_, as carmine, lake of various hues,
ultramarine blue, verdigris, &c.

White-lead is very largely used, not only as a foundation, but enters
into the composition of various colours, as stone, drab, straw, &c.
In the mixture of rough stuff or filling, white-lead gives elasticity
and life to the ochre, and when properly used forms the tenacious
part of the under-coatings. But oil white-lead should not be used
where there is not sufficient time for it to thoroughly dry.

After a good foundation has been secured, and smooth coatings of lead
are desired, which will sand-paper smoothly and leave a pleasant
surface to colour over, the dry or tub white-lead should be used.
Whiting and white-lead make a good putty, though it is not so much
used as it ought to be.


CHROME YELLOW is seldom used clear, except for line-striping. There
are different shades of it as well as qualities, the best being the
cheapest in the end, as it has more body. Lemon and orange chrome are
all the carriage painter requires; with these he can mix up any hues
needed by the addition of reds.

INDIAN RED is a strong colour and of great service to the painter,
especially in forming the groundwork for transparent colours, such as
lakes of a reddish or purple cast, and carmine. Mixed with lampblack,
it forms the most durable under coatings that can be obtained where a
brown is needed.

RAW UMBER is largely used. With blue and yellow it forms a pleasant
range of quiet greens.

Combined with white and yellow it gives drab tints or stone colour,
which may be toned down by adding black, or lightened up by vermilion
or lake. In mixing a light striping colour which may have too much of
a raw yellow tone, if a little umber be added the defect is corrected.

CARMINE is a very brilliant colour, surpassing vermilion in richness
of tone, and yet similar to it for height of colour. It is often
adulterated with vermilion, which of course injures its purity.
_Pure_ carmine will dissolve in ammonia water without leaving any
sediment.

Mixed with drabs, delicate greens, asphaltum, &c., carmine imparts
warmth without injuring the colours.

There are several tints and qualities of LAKE. Those commonly used
are English purple, Munich and Florence lakes. English purple lake
will bear some raw oil in mixing it; the others are best without it.

ULTRAMARINE BLUE, when pure, is a very durable colour. It is prepared
from the mineral _Lapis lazuli_. Mixed with the lakes, it tones them
down without seriously injuring the purity of the colour. For clear
ultramarine a dark lead-coloured ground will answer, or make a ground
colour of Prussian blue and white to nearly match the tint of the
ultramarine.

This is rather a difficult colour to handle, but the secret of laying
it on successfully is to have sufficient varnish or boiled oil in the
colour to prevent it “flying off” or drying too dead.

VERDIGRIS is an acetate of copper, of bluish colour, and requires a
groundwork. It is not used to any great extent as a panel colour.

The following is a list of compound colours and their application:—

  _Pure Grey._—White and black in various proportions.

  _Coloured Greys._—Red and green. Blue and orange.

  _Straw Colour._—White, chrome yellow, and raw umber.

  _Light Buff._—White and yellow ochre.

  _Deep Buff._—White, yellow ochre, and red.

  _Salmon Colour._—White, yellow, and vermilion.

  _Flesh Colour._—White, Naples yellow, and vermilion.

  _Orange._—Equal parts of red and yellow.

  _Pearl Colour._—White, black, and vermilion.

  _Lead Colour._—White and blue, with a little black.

  _Stone Colour._—Black, amber, and yellow.

  _Canary Colour._—White and chrome yellow.

  _Tan Colour._—Burnt sienna, yellow, and raw umber.

  _Pea Green._—White and chrome green.

  _Sea Green._—Prussian blue and yellow.

  _Citron._—Green and orange.

  _Chocolate._—Black and Spanish brown.

  _Olive._—Umber, yellow, and black.

  _Lilac._—White, carmine, and ultramarine blue.

  _Purple._—Olive, red, and carmine.

  _Violet._—Blue and red.

  _Wine Colour._—Purple, lake, and ultramarine blue.

  _Dark Brown._—Vandyke brown, burnt sienna, and lake.

  _Green._—Blue and yellow in different proportions according
  to the tone required.

  _Marone._—Crimson, lake, and burnt umber.

The above list will enable the painter to mix about all the colours
required in coach-painting. A great many shades may be made of each
of those given by varying the proportions of the component colours.

A good quality of raw linseed oil should be used, as it works well
and dries dead when not used in excess, and it is free from the
gumminess found in boiled oil. Raw oil simmered over a gentle fire
for two or three hours has its drying qualities improved, more
especially if a little sugar of lead be added to it.

Japanners’ gold size is made as follows:—Asphaltum, litharge, or
red-lead, each 1 oz.; stir them with a pint of linseed oil, and
simmer the mixture over a gentle fire till it is dissolved and the
scum ceases to rise, and the fluid thickens on cooling.

The quality of the varnish used is very important. Rubbing varnishes
are required to dry firmly in from two to five days, consequently
they have not much oil in their composition. A good wearing rubbing
varnish should not be rubbed until the fourth or fifth day after
being laid on; when rubbed it should not sweat (become glossy) soon
after, even in hot weather. Slow-drying rubbing varnish, when allowed
to stand a day or so after having been rubbed down, will sweat out in
hot weather, and should again be run over with the “rub rag” and fine
pumice before another coat is applied.

Rubbing varnish that sweats at all times, soon after being rubbed, is
liable to crack and should not be used.

By the use of hard drying varnish the painter is enabled to level his
work down, and prepare for the last coat or finishing varnish. This
last coating must be of an opposite nature to that on which it is
laid if great brilliancy is sought after; and, as its surface must
ever be opposed to the action of heat and cold, sunshine and shower,
it must possess an elasticity or oily nature that will resist these
changes for a great length of time.


_Painting the Coach._

The body generally receives a coat of priming on the bottom, top, and
inside in the wood shop. This is called “slushing,” so that when the
body arrives in the proof shop these parts are one coat in advance of
the other portions.

The top and the panels require a considerable amount of attention.
If the top is constructed of green timber it will cause the covering
to rise up in ridges or blisters, and when the canvas is put on, if
it is not well stretched when it is nailed on, the air gets under
it and causes a deal of trouble. The inside of the top should have
a good heavy coating of slush or oil lead to preserve the wood from
dampness, and the outside of the top should be properly primed with
clean smooth lead colour. When this is dry the nail holes should
be puttied in, and sunken places brought forward with firm drying
putty, which will bear blocking down with sand-paper, leaving the top
as level as possible. When this is dusted off clean, apply a heavy
coat of lead in oil, with sufficient varnish in it to hold the lead
together.

The inside of the body should be well coated, as it is a great
protection to the panels. The priming coat should be composed of the
best pure keg lead and oil, with only a small quantity of drier, and
allowed at least a week in which to dry. This coat should be well
worked in to the nail holes and the grain of the wood. A well-worn
springy brush is the best. When this coating is dry sand-paper it
carefully, and apply a second coat of lead colour, using less oil.
The third day after this, putty the nail holes half full; two after
this, apply the third coat, mixing it so that it will dry firmly, no
oil being used except that which is present in the lead. When dry,
finish puttying the nail holes; also putty up any of the grain that
may appear too open, or else rub into the grain some lead mixed up
very heavy.

The body, after having received three coats of lead, and been puttied
up, may now stand for two or three days. When it is again taken in
hand, sand-paper off any putty that may be above the level of the
surface; dust off, and brush on a level coat of lead, which must
dry hard and firm. Every coat of lead should be laid on as level
as possible, and made to fill up the grain of the wood as much as
possible. These coats are called “rough stuff.” The body may now
stand for three or four days, when it will be ready for the filling
up.

There are two very important things to be studied in coach-painting.
First, to form a surface hard enough to hold out the varnish and
disguise the grain of the wood; and second, to have the first and
intermediate coats of paint sufficiently elastic to adhere and yield
to the natural action of the wood without cracking or flaking off. In
effecting one of these results we are apt to affect the other; and
nothing but the utmost care, on the part both of the manufacturer of
the essential ingredients and of the person who prepares them for
use, can insure durability.

The leather-covered portions are usually primed with two coats of
black Japan, reduced with a little turpentine.

A good stopping material for nail holes, &c., is made of dry lead and
Japan gold size. It is called “hard stopper.”

The rough coatings should dry firmly, possessing only sufficient
elasticity to bind them to the surface. The first coat will bear a
trifle more oil than the remaining ones, and should stand about four
days before the others are put on, which can be done every other day.

Five coats of filling up are next added, composed as follows:—

  2    parts filling up stuff.
  1    part tub lead.
  2    parts turpentine.
  1    part Japan gold size.
  ½      „  bottoms of wearing varnish.

The first coat should cover every portion of the lead surface, be
well brushed in, but not allowed to lie heavy at the corners. The
remaining coats may be applied reasonably heavy, but kept from
lapping over the edges or rounding the sharp corners, and thus
destroying the clean sharp lines of the body-maker.

Any defects noticed while filling in should be puttied or stopped,
ever bearing in mind that the perfection in finish aimed at is only
secured by care at every step taken.

The leather-covered parts generally have three additional coats of
filling in.

The time allowed for each coat to dry may be extended as far as
convenient, but there is nothing to be gained by allowing weeks to
intervene between the coatings. When a coat is hard it is ready
for another; and it is far better to have the body filled and set
aside than to divide the time between the coatings, and probably
be compelled to rub out the body before the last coat is firm. Of
course, the time occupied by the coats of filling in to dry varies
according to its composition. If much oil be used, it will take a
longer time for each coat to dry; but the above composition may be
applied one coat every other day.

The first coat may be applied rather thinner than the others, and
is improved by being mixed with a little more white-lead. It should
also be made more elastic than the succeeding ones, as it will then
take a firmer hold on the “dead” lead coat over which it is placed,
contributing a portion of its elasticity to that coat, and also cling
more firmly to the hard drying coats which follow.

The body having been filled in may be set aside to harden, or if
the smith is ready for it this is the best time for him to take it
in hand, as any dents or burns that he may cause can now easily be
remedied without spoiling the appearance of the vehicle. Later on,
this is a matter of great difficulty, if not impossibility. Any
bruises should be puttied; any parts which may happen to be burned
must have the paint scraped off bare to the wood. Prime the bare
spots, and putty and fill them to bring them forward the same as the
general surface.

A material has recently been brought into the English market called
“permanent wood filling,” which is confidently recommended as
effecting a saving in time, expense, and labour, and at the same time
more effectually closing the pores of the wood than the ordinary
filling now in use. This invention is due to a Polish exile named
Piotrowski, who took refuge in America, and there introduced it about
1867, since which date it has found its way into the chief carriage
factories in the United States. It is applied to the bare wood, one
coat being given to bodies and two coats to carriage parts. This
closes the pores, holds the grain immovably in its place, and is
so permanent in its effect that neither exposure to dampness, nor
atmospheric changes, nor the vibrations to which a carriage is so
subject can affect the grain. The satisfaction which this material
appears to give to the Americans, who pride themselves on the
superiority of their carriage-painting, ought to induce our English
coach-builders to inquire after it; for if all that we hear of it be
correct, it must assuredly be a valuable acquisition to the paint
shop.

In rubbing down use pumice-stone. It is best to begin on top and
follow on down, so that the filling water may not run down on to any
part that has been finished. Water should not stand for any length
of time on the inside of the body; and when the rubbing is completed
wash off clean outside and in, and dry with a chamois kept for the
purpose.

The body, when dry, receives a staining coat, and is to be carefully
sand-papered over, the corners cleaned out, and put on a coat or
two coats of dark lead colour, made of tub lead, lampblack, raw
oil, and a small quantity of sugar of lead, and reduced to a proper
consistency with Japan gold size and turpentine. When dry scratch
over the lead colour with fine sand-paper, which will make it appear
of a lighter colour; we shall then be able to detect any low or sunk
places by reason of the shadow. Putty up any imperfections with putty
made of lead and varnish, and when dry face down with lump pumice and
water. Follow with fine sand-paper, when the surface will be in a
condition to receive the colour coats. Sometimes, after cleaning off,
another coat of dark lead colour is laid on.

Analysing the foregoing, we find we have used—

   1  priming coat of lead (or leather parts, 2 coats of
         black varnish instead).
   2  thin coats lead colour, and stopped up.
   5  coats of filling up (8 coats on leather parts).
   1  staining coat, rubbed down and cleaned off.
   2  coats dark red colour, stopped up, and carefully rubbed down.
   1  coat dark lead colour.
   —
  12  coats, and ready for colour.

So much for the body parts. To the carriage parts two coats of
priming are laid on, which are worked in the same way as those
applied to the body. All cavities are then stopped with hard stopper,
to which a little turpentine is added in order to make it sand-paper
easily. Two coats of quick-drying lead colour are then applied to
the wood parts. The whole is then well sand-papered down, and the
grain should be found well filled and smooth. A thin coat of oil lead
colour is then laid on, and when dry sand-papered down; any joints or
open places between the tire and felloes of the wheels are carefully
puttied up with oil putty. The carriage parts are then ready for
colour. This time we have applied—

   2 coats of lead priming, stopped up.
   2 coats of lead, thoroughly sand-papered.
   1 coat (thin) of lead colour, sand-papered and puttied up.
   —
   5 coats, and ready for colour.

The colours are to be ground very fine, kept clean, and spread on
with the proper brushes. If the panels are to be painted different
from the other parts, lay on the black first, for if any black falls
on the panel colour it will occasion some trouble by destroying the
purity of a transparent colour. By repeatedly turning the brush over
while using it, there is less liability to accidents of this kind.

The colouring of the body is finished as follows:—For the
upper quarters and roof grind ivory black in raw oil to a stiff
consistency, add a little sugar of lead finely ground as a drier, and
bring to the required consistency with black Japan and turpentine.
Lay on two coats of this, and then two coats of black Japan, and rub
down. Then face off the moulding, and give a thin coat of dead black,
after which apply another coat of black Japan, and flat again. The
whole should then be varnished with hard drying varnish, flatted
down, and finished with a full coat of wearing body varnish. The
varnish should have at least three days to dry; five or six would be
better. The first coat of rubbing varnish may be applied thinner than
the others, in order to avoid staining the colours.

The pencils used on mouldings should be large enough to take in the
whole width at once, and let the colour run evenly along, avoiding
laps or stoppages, except at the corners, where it cannot be helped.
Avoid the use of turpentine in varnish if possible; but if the
varnish be dark and heavy, sufficient turpentine added to make it
flow evenly will not hurt it. The half elastic and fine bristle
brushes are better for working heavy varnish than the sable or badger.

In varnishing a body begin on the roof, bringing the varnish to
within 2 or 3 inches of the outer edges. Next, the inside of doors,
&c., then the arch. When these are finished, start on the head rail
on one side, lay the varnish on heavy, and follow quickly to the
quarter. The edge on the roof, which was skipped before, is to be
coated and finished with the outside, thus preventing a heavy edge.
Continue round the body, finishing the boot last.

The frames and other loose pieces about a coach should be brought
forward along with the body, and not left as is often done. The
frames are most conveniently handled by a device similar to a
swinging dressing-glass; a base and two uprights stoutly framed
together, allowing space for the frame to swing. It is held in its
position by two pointed iron pins, one fixed and the other movable.
This is very convenient for varnishing, as the painter can examine
his work by tilting it to any angle, and thus detect any pieces of
dirt, &c.

If the body is to be lake in colour, the lake should be ground in raw
oil, stiff, and reduced with turpentine and hard drying varnish. The
same with dross black and Indian red. Over lakes and greens two coats
of hard drying varnish should be applied, and one coat of finishing.

If the body is to be blue, mix ultramarine blue with one-half raw oil
and turpentine, and bring it to a workable consistency by thinning
with hard drying body varnish. Give the body two coats, and after
each a slight flatting; then give two more coats of the same with
varnish added.

When Prussian blue is used, two coats are applied, and white is
added, if necessary, to bring it to the required shade. The blues
will dry sufficiently well when merely ground in raw oil, stiff, and
reduced with turpentine, and it is better not to add a drier over
blues; only one coat of hard drying body varnish should be given, and
one finishing coat.

In no case should the painter allow his oil colours to dry with a
gloss. He must always flat them and give them the appearance of
dead colour. This is particularly important, in case rough stuff or
quick-drying colour is to be used over it.

The carriage parts are finished as follows:—Two coats of lead colour
are first laid on, composed in the same way as those for the body
before the colour is applied. Then stop all parts requiring it with
hard stopper, a little reduced with turpentine to sand-paper easily.
To the wood parts apply two coats of quick lead, composed of dry
lead and lampblack ground in gold size and thinned with turpentine.
Sand-paper down thoroughly, and the grain will be found smooth and
well filled up. A thin coat of oil lead colour is then applied, and
sand-papered down when dry; and at this stage any open parts between
the tire and felloe of the wheels, &c., should be again stopped up
with oil putty. A coat of colour varnish follows, then a second, with
more varnish added. The parts are then flatted and striped; another
light coat of clear varnish is given, and after being flatted down
the fine lines are added, and the whole is finished with a good coat
of wearing varnish.

The carriage parts are generally painted one or two tones lighter
than the colour of the panels of the body, except where the panel
colour is of a hue that will not admit of it. Certain shades of
green, blue, and red may be used on panels, but would not, when made
a tint or two lighter, be suitable for a carriage part. Dark brown,
claret, and purple lake would not be open to this objection, because,
to the majority of persons, they are colours which are pleasing to
the eye, both in their deep and medium tones.

When the panels are to be painted green, blue, or red, and the
painter wishes to carry these colours on to the carriage part, it is
better to use them for striping only, and let the ground colour be
black.

A carriage part painted black may be made to harmonise with any
colour used on the body, as the striping colours can be selected so
as to produce any desired effect. Brilliant striping can be brought
out on dark colours only, while, if the ground colour be light,
recourse must be had to dark striping colours to form a contrast. The
carriage part should not detract from the appearance of the body;
that is, there should be sufficient contrast between the two to bring
out the beauties of the body. A plainly finished body will appear to
better advantage on a showy carriage, and a richly painted body on
one that is not very ornate.

In striping the carriage parts, the bright colours should be used
sparingly. A fine line placed on the face of the spokes and naves,
and distributed over the inside carriage, would look far better than
when each side of the spokes, the faces, the naves, and felloes, &c.,
are striped on both sides.

The coatings of varnish contribute largely to the durability as well
as beauty of a carriage part. The ground and striping colours are
shown in their purity only after they are varnished and have a good
surface, and the test of wearing depends on the quantity and quality
of varnish applied.

Every carriage part should have at least two coats of _clear_
varnish. The first coat of varnish to be applied over the colour and
varnish; the second, a good finishing coat, possessing body, and
good wearing qualities. Ground pumice and water must be used to cut
down the varnish, otherwise the finishing coat will be robbed of its
beauty.

In laying on the finishing coat, avoid the extremes of putting it on
too thick or too thin. Lay on a medium coat. A thin one will appear
gritty and rough; and one too heavy will sink in and grow dim.

From the above description, it will be seen that painting a coach
is a tedious operation, and one which consumes a great deal of time
in its execution; but, if well done, the result will certainly be
very satisfactory. In no case should the painting be hurried, for by
allowing each coat of paint or varnish sufficient time to dry its
durability is insured.

A considerable amount of time is generally spent by the painter in
work which does not really belong to him—that of mixing and grinding
his colours. Where the muller and slab are used, they occasion a
great deal of labour, and the tones of the colours are liable to be
injured by the heat generated in the process; and even where the hand
mills are used, the process is by no means so cleanly as it ought to
be. And under the heading of waste, this must always be a source of
loss to the manufacturer, for the painter, for fear of not mixing
up sufficient colour for his use, generally prepares too great a
quantity, and as a rule, the surplus is waste, for it is no use to
employ stale colours in painting vehicles, however well it may do in
house painting.

What we want is to have the colours ready ground for the painter’s
hand, and against this has been urged the objection, that the
delicate colours would lose their purity, and all colours be more or
less affected by it. That this is utterly fallacious is seen by the
fact that paints and colours ready ground and prepared are the rule
in America. The invention of the machinery, &c., for this purpose, is
due to Mr. J. W. Masury, of New York, and he grinds pigments of the
hardest description to the most impalpable fineness without injuring
the tones of the most delicate; and by a process of his own preserves
them, so that the painter has nothing to do but to reduce them to the
consistency he may require for the work in hand. He says they effect
a saving of from 20 to 50 per cent. both of labour and material. It
is difficult to understand why so valuable an invention is not more
general in this country.


_Irregularities in Varnish._

Varnish is subject to various changes after having been applied to
a body or carriage part. It crawls, runs, enamels, pits, blotches,
smokes or clouds over, and in the carriage parts gathers up and hangs
in heavy beads along the centre of the spokes, &c.

These irregularities will happen at times with the very best varnish
and the most skilled workmanship, and surrounded with everything
necessary to insure a perfect job.

The only reason that can be assigned for it is atmospheric influence.
These peculiarities have occupied a large portion of the time of the
trade, and no other solution has been arrived at than the above.

The defects of varnishes should be divided into two classes:
those which take place while in the workshop and those which show
themselves after the vehicle has left the hands of the maker. The
defects which show themselves in the varnish room are those of
“spotting,” “blooming,” “pin-holing,” “going off silky,” “going in
dead.” Those which take place afterwards are “cracking,” “blooming,”
“mud-spotting,” and loss of surface, sometimes amounting to its
almost total destruction.

The two classes should be considered separately; and assuming
that the workmanship is of the best quality, the latter class of
defects, with the exception of blooming, are in no way attributable
to the varnish; and blooming is caused by the atmosphere being
overcharged with moisture, as would be the case before a storm, and
it is soon remedied. Cracking will arise from too great an exposure
to the sun, just as any other material will be damaged by unfair
treatment. Mud-spotting will arise from using the carriage in muddy
or slushy roads before the varnish is properly dry. The loss of
surface will depend largely on the coachman, who, from ignorance or
negligence, may rub down the panels of a carriage until its glossy
surface entirely disappears; and if the stable is contiguous to the
coach-house this destruction will be assisted by the ammoniacal
vapours arising from the manure, &c.

The other defects belong to the inherent nature of the varnish as
at present manufactured, and admitting the secondary cause to be
atmospheric influence, it is necessary to inquire why it is that
varnish should be subject to such influence. According to the usual
way of making varnishes, we know that various metallic salts and
chemical compounds are used to increase their drying properties.
All these will contain a certain definite amount of water, termed
“water of crystallization.” If deprived of this water they lose their
crystalline form, but they acquire a tendency of again assuming it
by attracting to themselves a proportionate amount of water when
it is brought within their power. Now the heat employed in making
varnishes is sufficient to expel this water; but the presence of the
salts is sooner or later detected, for when the varnish is applied
to the work these salts absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and by
becoming partially crystallized cause what is known as “blooming,”
“spotting,” and “pin-holing.” The tendency to bloom will always
remain, even after the varnish has hardened. But if any of these
effects take place in the varnishing room, while the varnish is
drying, it will be fatal to the appearance of the carriage.

To insure as near perfection as possible we want a substitute for
these objectionable driers, which will not be subject to atmospheric
influence.




                            CHAPTER XII.

  ORNAMENTAL PAINTING.

MONOGRAMS.


At the present time nearly all possessors of carriages have their
private marks painted on some part of the panels. These take the form
of monograms, initial letters, crests, and heraldic bearings or coats
of arms. The monogram is the commonest. For crests and coats of arms
a duty is levied, from which monograms are free.

A few examples are subjoined. They can be multiplied to any extent;
and designing monograms and initial letters would be excellent
practice for the apprentice.

[Illustration: Fig. 33.—V. A. C.]

Fig. 33.—Lay in C with dark blue, light blue, and chrome yellow, No.
2; lighted with A to be in Tuscan red, lighted with vermilion and
orange; V with olive green, lighted with a bright tint of olive green
and white. Separate the letters with a wash of asphaltum.

[Illustration: Fig. 34.—I. N. C.]

Fig. 34.—Paint C a tan colour shaded with burnt sienna, shaded with
asphaltum to form the darkest shades. Put in the high lights with
white toned with burnt sienna. Colour I with dark and light shades of
purple, lighted with pale orange; N to be lake colour lighted with
vermilion. The above may be varied by painting the upper half of the
letters with the colours named, and the lower portions in dark tints
of the same colour. When this is done, care must be taken to blend
the two shades, otherwise it will look as if the letters are cut in
two.

[Illustration: Fig. 35.—O. T. S.]

Fig. 35.—Paint the upper half of O a light olive green, and the lower
half a darker tone of the same colour; T to be lake, lighted with
vermilion above the division made by the letter S, no high lighting
to be used on the bottom portion of the stem; S to be painted red
brown, lighted with orange; or the colours may be laid on in gold
leaf, and the above colours glazed over it.

[Illustration: Fig. 36.—V. A. T.]

Fig. 36.—This combination forms a pleasing variety, and will afford
good practice in the use of the pencil. Lay in the letters as
indicated by the shading, the letter V to be darker than A, and
T deeper in tone than either V or A. The letters may all be laid
on with gold leaf, and afterwards glazed with colours to suit the
painter’s taste. The vine at the base may be a delicate green tinged
with carmine.

[Illustration: Fig. 37.—A. R. T.]

Fig. 37.—This is of French design. The letters furnish an odd yet
attractive style. It will be noticed that the stem of the letter T
covers the centre perpendicularly, and that the outer lower portions
of A and R are drawn to touch on the same line. The main stems of
these letters terminate in twin forms, arranged so as to cross each
other at the centre of the monogram and balance each other on either
side. In the matter of its colouring, it may be mentioned that the
letters in a monogram are very often painted all in one colour, and
separated at the edges by a streak of white or high light. Monograms
painted in this manner should be drawn so that the design will not be
confused by ornamentation; that is, the main outlines of each letter
should be distinctly defined, and the spaces must be so arranged as
not to confuse the outlines. The pattern here given may be coloured
carmine, and the edges separated by straw colour or blue, and the
letters be defined by canary colour, or a lighter tint of blue than
the bodies of the letters are painted.

[Illustration: Fig. 38.—T. O. M.]

Fig. 38.—If the ground colour of the panels is claret or purple
the letters may be painted with the same colour, lightened up with
vermilion and white, forming three distinct tints; on brown, coat the
letters with lighter shades of brown; and so on with other colours.


INITIAL LETTERS.

A well painted initial letter is certainly quite equal to a monogram;
but then it must be well painted, because, as it stands alone, it has
only itself to rely upon for any effect, whereas, in a monogram, the
component letters mutually assist each other.

[Illustration: Fig. 39.—D.]

Fig. 39.—This letter possesses all the grace of outline that could
be desired in a single letter. Paint the letter in gold, shaded with
asphaltum and lighted with white. If a colour be used, have one that
agrees in tone with the striping on the carriage part; that is to
say, if blue be used in striping, then use the same kind of blue for
the letter, and so on with other colours.

We may here mention that all this kind of painting is done on the
last rubbing coat of varnish, so that the letters receive a coat of
varnish when the finishing coat is given.

[Illustration: Fig. 40.—S.]

Fig. 40.—The natural form of this letter is graceful, being composed
of curves bearing in opposite directions, and which blend into each
other, forming a continuous but varied line. The ornamentation also
falls into the shape of the letter naturally. The upper and lower
ends of the letter terminate in three stems, covered by three-lobed
leafing, and the main stem of the letter is preserved in shape by
appearing to grow out naturally from its outer and inner edges.

Lay in the letter with gold, on which work out the design with
transparent colours. If colours only be employed the panel colour may
be taken as part of the colouring of the letter; for instance, if the
panel be dark brown, lake, blue, or green, mix up lighter tints of
whichever colour it may be, and considering the panel colour as the
darkest shade, lighten up from it.

[Illustration: Fig. 41.—V.]

Fig. 41.—This letter will please by the novelty of its ornamentation.
The body of the letter retains its natural outline almost wholly.
From the upper part of the thin stem springs a scroll, which curves
downward, reaching to the middle of the letter, and from this grows
out a second scroll, serving to ornament the lower portions.

Lay in the colour in harmony with the striping colour, deepening the
tone of the colour on the stem of the letter, as shown by the shade
lines. The leafing should be made out with light, medium, and dark
tints, blended into each other so as to avoid the scratchy appearance
which an opposite method produces.


CRESTS AND HERALDIC BEARINGS.

It would be impossible to give anything like a comprehensive series
of these in this, or indeed in a very much larger work, as their
number and variety are so great. The examples subjoined are given
as exercises in colouring; and, if the student desires to extend
his studies in this direction, most stationers will supply him with
sheets of them at a trifling cost, and to them he may apply the
principles enumerated below.

[Illustration: Fig. 42.]

Fig. 42.—This is a small ornament, but it will disclose to the
painter whether he has got hold of the method of handling the
“cutting-up pencil.” If, in attempting the circular part, the hand
becomes inclined to be unsteady in its motion, and create a lack of
confidence, the painter should practise until assured that the hand
will obey the will.

The ornamental part to be gold, shaded with asphaltum, and high
light with a delicate pink, composed of flake white and light red.
The wreaths may be painted blue and white. Mix up three lines of
blue, placing the darkest at the bottom or lower part of each band
shown, as shaded in the figure. The white bands should not be of pure
white, but a light grey, made by mixing a little black with the white
colour. For the high light running along the centre of the wreath,
use white tinted with yellow. The space covered with diagonal lines
may either be left plain, showing the panel colour, or barred across
with grey lines made of flake white and black, tinged with carmine.

[Illustration: Fig. 43.]

Fig. 43.—This is the letter V combined with a garter. Size in the
entire pattern, and lay the pattern in with gold, and glaze over the
inner part of the garter with a light blue, the inner and outer edges
to remain gold. The flying ribbon to be pink, composed of carmine and
white, and the shading to be clear carmine, with carmine saddened
with black for the deeper tones. The stems of the letter V to be
green, shaded with a reddish brown, and the leafing to be the same
colours.

[Illustration: Fig. 44.]

Fig. 44.—Paint the cap crimson, the wreath green and grey, lighted
with a delicate pink. The circular part to be gold, shaded with
asphaltum tinted with carmine; the outside border of shield to be
gold also; the upper division of the shield to be red, deep and rich
in tone. The chevron, or white angular band across the shield, to be
a grey, lighted up with pure white. The lower division of the shield
to be blue, and the deep shades to be purple. Paint the leafing at
the base with a colour mixed of burnt umber, yellow, and lake; shade
with asphaltum tinted with carmine, and put in the high lights with
orange or vermilion.

[Illustration: Fig. 45.]

Fig. 45.—This is from a design by Gustave Doré. It is an odd but
still pretty design. Lay in the whole of the pattern in gold; shade
the details with verdigris darkened with asphaltum; put in the high
lights with pink, composed of light red and white. The escutcheon may
be coloured with light brown, carmine, and dark brown. The edges of
the diagonal bar to be dotted minutely with vermilion.

[Illustration: Fig. 46.]

Fig. 46.—Outline the garter with gold; the buckle and slide to be
gold also. Fill in the garter with light and dark tints of blue, and
put in the high lights with canary colour. Paint the floral gorgons
in brown shades, and light with orange and clear yellow. A small
portion of lake added to these browns will cause them to bear out
richly when varnished. Let the medium lights and shades predominate,
and the high lights added, first carefully considering their true
positions, and then touching them in with sharp strokes of the
pencil, which will give life and “go” to the details. The pendent
stems with leaves and berries may be coloured olive green, and shaded
with russet. When the painting of this ornament is dry it will be
considerably improved by glazing.

Fig. 47.—The central pattern is _Caduceus_, a Roman emblem. On the
rod or centre staff the wings are represented “displayed,” and the
two serpents turning round it signify _power_, the wings _fleetness_,
and the serpents _wisdom_.

This pattern would look well in gold, with the dark parts shaded with
black to the depths shown on the sketch; the lighter tones being
greys, warm in tone. The serpents may be put in with carmine, as also
the wings and head, and the rod carmine deepened with black.

[Illustration: Fig. 47.]

Various treatments of colouring may be applied to this pattern,
and thinking out some of these will be very good exercise for the
ingenuity of the painter.

[Illustration: Fig. 48.]

Fig. 48.—Put the pattern in in gold, separating the parts where
necessary with shadow lines, and produce the effect of interlacing by
a judicious use of high light lines and deep black lines. The best
pencil suited to this class of ornament is a “cutting-up” pencil
an inch long. Having traced the pattern on the panel, commence by
painting the crest, and next the main upper left-hand division of the
scroll part, paying no attention to the leafing or minor details. It
will be noticed that the centre line of the heavy leafing is a part
of the scroll line, which passes from the wreath or ribbon at the
top, and is completed at the base; so that to secure easy curves this
line should be laid in through its whole length, and the leafing or
any minor dividing lines be governed by it. Next lay in the other
half of the pattern in the same manner, and having secured these main
curves the subordinate details may be added.

Where two fine lines cross each other, the effect of one line
passing underneath the other may be produced by simply lighting one
of the lines across the intersection, which by contrast will make the
gold or colour of the other line appear darker, and as though the
lighted line passed over it and cast a shadow.

Paint the wreath blue and white, the crest to be merely lighted with
the colour used for high lighting the other parts.

[Illustration: Fig. 49.]

Fig. 49.—This consists of a species of dragon, having the head, neck,
and wings of a bird, and the body of a wild beast. He supports a
Norman shield, the “fess” or centre part displaying a Maltese cross.

In painting this ornament, first get a correct outline of the whole;
then mix up two or three tints of the colour you design painting it,
having a pencil for each, and a clean pencil for blending the edges,
so that no hard lines may appear at the junction of the different
colours. Lay on the shaded portions first, then the half lights,
keeping them subdued in tone, so as to allow for the finishing
touches showing clear and distinct.

On a claret-colour panel the whole may be painted in different hues
of purple and red. On a dark blue panel, varying shades of blue
lighter than the groundwork, and so with other colours. The shaded
portion must be distinct, and gradually connected with the lighter
portions by light tints of the shading colour.

Or the dragon may be painted grey, the high lights with the same
colour warmed up with yellow; the outline of the shield in gold;
the upper division, a light cobalt blue; the lower division, a pale
orange; the cross, brown, shaded with asphaltum; the wreath, blue and
white; and the flying ribbon and leafing in gold.




                            CHAPTER XIII.

  LINING AND TRIMMING.


This is a department which requires great taste as well as skill.
The interior of a carriage should be lined with cloth and silk, or
cloth and morocco, with laces specially manufactured for the purpose.
The colours should correspond to or harmonise with the painting.
Light drab, or fawn colour, used to be a very general colour for the
linings of close carriages, such as broughams, because they at once
afforded relief to and harmonised with any dark colour that might
have been selected for the painting. But a severe simplicity of taste
has prevailed of late years in this country, and the linings of the
carriages have been made mostly dark in colour to correspond to the
colour of the painting. This is often carried to such an extreme
as to present an appearance of sameness and tastelessness. It is
no uncommon thing, for instance, to see a brougham painted dark
green, striped with black lines, and lined with dark green cloth and
morocco, with plain laces to correspond. This to us appears to be
only one degree removed from a mourning coach, and it will be a great
pity if such a taste prevails. On the other hand, violent contrasts
outrage all principles of good taste. Morocco and cloth, or silk and
cloth, of the same colour as the paint may be used for the linings,
but, as the painting should be relieved by lines that harmonise with
it, so should the linings be relieved by the laces and tufts, which
are intended to give life and character to it.

_Landau Back, Quarter, and Fall._

[Illustration: Fig. 50.]

The back is made with one full row of squares, and two rows of
buttons at the bottom, besides the finishing squares (see Fig. 50),
then the swell of the back is carried up to within 4 inches of the
upper edge, 1⅛ inches being allowed for the swell. Then the top of
the back is finished with a large roll, of about 5 inches swell or
girth, so that the back has only one row of buttons in the upper
sweep.

[Illustration: Fig. 51.]

The arm-pieces, Fig. 51, are made in a peculiar way, and the _modus
operandi_ is rather difficult of explanation. In the place of the
usual arm-piece block, a piece of plank, 2¾ inches wide by ½ inch
thick, is fitted in with the usual sweep to it. Now fit four pieces
of single fly buckram, to form as it were a funnel, the shape of
the arm-piece desired; then sew seaming lace to the two edges of
the funnel, which will show inside of the body; to the lower edge
sew a piece of cloth in smooth, so that it will cover the bottom of
the funnel or cylinder. To the same lace edge, blind sew in a piece
of cloth, for the purpose of forming a wrinkled roll on the inner
face of the funnel, wrinkled 1 inch in fulness for every 3 inches
in length, and as full the other way as desired, for it ought to be
full enough to come out with the bottom side quarter. Next, blind sew
the outer edge of this roll to the other or top seaming lace, and
stuff lightly with hair, thus forming one roll on the inner face, and
having the lower face covered with the smooth cloth.

Now blind sew another piece of cloth to the top lace, as in the other
case, to form another wrinkled roll on top of the funnel or cylinder,
but the outer edge of this roll is to be finished by nailing to
the outside of the piece of plank just mentioned. All this sewing
is of course to be done on the bench, one side of the funnel to be
left open for this purpose. Next, nail in the bottom side quarter
made up in squares, and then nail the side of the funnel, which is
fitted against the arm-board, to the board and over the quarter, thus
finishing the lower part. Then nail the fourth on top side to the
top edge of arm-board; next, stuff from the front the funnel, pretty
solid, and finish the top roll, which up to now has been left open,
into the outside of the arm-board, thus completing the arm-piece,
which shows two wrinkled rolls divided by two rows of seaming lace.

[Illustration: Fig. 52.]

The door fall, Fig. 52, is made on three fly buckram pasted together,
but one fly is cut off about an inch from the top to allow the fall
to hinge. The fall is made about 12 inches deep, the lower edge being
circular. The broad lace is bent to the required shape, and the
corners sewed and put on to the buckram, which is cut to the shape
intended for the fall. Mark where the inside edge of the lace comes
all round the buckram, then mark 1¼ inches from the mark; paste a
piece of carpet into the buckram to come within ½ inch from this
mark, which will make the edge of the carpet 1⅜ inches from the edge
of the lace; cover this carpet with a piece of cloth, pasting on the
buckram; take a piece of seaming lace, long enough to reach round
the fall, and sew a piece of cloth to it, for the purpose of forming
a wrinkled roll round three sides of the fall, inside the broad
lace and outside the sewed carpet, between both, with 1 inch fulness
to each 3 inches of length; sew this seaming lace and roll to the
buckram at the mark, 1¼ inches from the broad lace, gather the other
edge with a running string, and sew down and stuff lightly, finishing
in such a manner that the broad lace shall cover this sewed edge;
next, paste on the broad lace and cover the wrong side with silk or
muslin. When dry, stitch both edges.

[Illustration: Fig. 53.]

[Illustration: Fig. 54.]

Figs. 53 and 54 show two styles of trimming for a door. Fig. 53 is
made as follows:—Paste out three flies of buckram, and lay off for
block or biscuit pattern, leaving space enough all round for a broad
lace border, and at the top leave double the space. The top space
is formed into a plain cloth roll of the same goods as the job is
trimmed with.

In this case the trimming is brown cloth; the broad lace is silk and
worsted of a shade much lighter than the cloth. The diamond-shaped
and connecting figures are worsted and are raised.

The card-pocket is made of tin and covered with Turkey morocco the
colour of the trimming.

In Fig. 54 it will be noticed that the style is somewhat different
from the other; the surface of the door is trimmed plain, the fall
alone being stuffed. The fall is stuffed in diamond form and enclosed
with a lace border. This pocket runs up under the fall to the top,
and is there nailed.

The following remarks on lining and trimming are taken from
“Cassell’s Technical Educator:”—

“We may with advantage say a word to our carriage lace-makers, who
seem to have made but scant use of the various Schools of Design
for the improvement of their taste in producing new and suitable
patterns in the manufacture of their goods. For a long period we
had nothing but the old scroll or flower pattern, which was handed
down from father to son as if by a fixed law. At length, when it
was felt that some change was required, the absence of all taste
in design was shown in the production of entirely plain worked
laces, which deprived carriage linings of their chief element of
lightness and beauty. Thanks, however, to the taste and discernment
of Messrs. Whittingham & Walker, who, perhaps, have devoted more
attention to this branch of industry than any other house in London,
the trade was relieved from the necessity of either adhering to the
old pattern or of adopting the opposite scheme. They introduced
small neat designs in laces eminently adapted to the purpose, and in
1857 they registered a pattern, now extensively known as the double
diamond pattern, which has not only become general in England, but
is largely patronised throughout Europe and America. This, and
kindred patterns, exactly fulfil modern requirements, and give us the
necessary relief without extreme.

“But with materials well and tastefully selected the trimmer has
still his work to do. The lining of a carriage is divided into many
different parts, all of which have to be designed. Canvas or paper
patterns have to be cut to these, and properly fitted before the
material is touched with which the carriage is to be lined. Wherever
superiority of workmanship is to be shown in this department, the
French method of trimming is adopted as being more elegant than the
English. We shall therefore confine our observations to this method.

“In adopting the French method silk is mostly used in the place of
morocco, and its peculiarities consist in the manner of quilting. The
different squabs are made up in horizontal pipes or flutes, which are
tufted in different ways. To proceed, cut a pattern in strong paper
the size and shape of the space to be trimmed, and draw on it with
a pencil the pipes, also mark the position of the tufts. On large
pieces only mark one-half, the other half being the same. The pipes
of the back are usually 12 inches high and from 3 to 5 inches wide.

“The position of the tufts is considerably varied. Next stretch a
piece of strong muslin in the stretching frame, lay the paper pattern
on it, and mark the position of the tufts with an awl. Mark the
lines of the pipes on the muslin with red chalk or pencil. In the
same manner the pattern must be transferred upon the inside of the
material used for covering, making of course due allowance for the
depth of the pipes; about 3 inches is a fair average for fulness at
the top, 1 inch for the height of the pipes, and 1½ inches for the
width. For the last pipe an extra allowance is made in a narrow strip
sewed on to it.

“Next lay a quantity of hair on the frame and form it the swell
desired. Keep the hair in position with a few long stitches, and lay
the silk over it. Commence tufting in the middle of the lower row of
pipes, and continue equally to both sides. Silk cords stretched into
the channels between the pipes were at one time considered elegant,
but their main merit was that they aided materially in preserving the
original shape of the pipes. Backs are usually made couch-shaped,
with a roll all round on the top, which at the same time form the
elbow-pieces on the sides. In elegant carriages this roll is often
elaborately executed in a helical or screw-like shape, and continued
from the door-pillar down to the seat-frame, being made by winding
silk cords around the roll. These silk cords appear as a single
thread, but in reality there are three different cords which are
wound at even distances. A style of trimming much used of late both
in France and Germany for low backs, is a row of pipes at the lower
end, which are pinched to points at the top, and above these are
three rows of regular squares. Squares are preferred to diamonds as
they are softer.

“Usually the back is laid on spiral springs, which are fastened as
follows:—The back of the body is covered with coarse muslin, after
being slightly stuffed, and on this muslin four rows of seven small
springs each are set. For the lowest row, springs a little stronger
may be used than for the other rows. The highest row is set about
1½ inches below the edge of the back-board, and the lowest row at 6
inches above the seat-frame. The springs having been sewn on with a
bent needle, are tied first from right to left and then from top to
bottom. A thin cord will answer for this purpose.

“The cord is first cut in lengths, and when the tying begins about
6 inches are allowed at the ends. The cord is wound about the third
ring of the first and last spring in each row, and afterwards the
first ring is brought into the right position with the piece of cord
allowed over. This will make the spring stand upright, and it can be
raised or lowered on one side. The springs being thus all placed in
position, they are finally tied crossways.

“The squab, in this instance, is worked in coarse muslin or canvas,
stiffened with a little thin paste. It is set in the frame and marked
as we have described above. When the cushions press against the back
and side pieces, frequently no stuffing is made, but simply a piece
of fine linen is sewed reverse to the main piece, and this is called
the ‘false finish.’ In fine work the stuffing extends clear to the
seat-frame.

“Of course each of these variations requires a different calculation
for the muslin at the back as well as for the cover. For the latter
an allowance of 1½ inches is made for the pipes from the lower to
the upper end, and also for the points an addition of ¾ inch. For
each square in the height 1½ inch has to be calculated. The folds of
squares when laid over springs being diagonal, easily draw apart when
stretched out, while the folds of diamonds running up and down may be
drawn tighter to a certain degree of stretching.

“For the upper row of squares we have to allow for the backs at least
double what we have to allow for the other rows—namely, 3 inches. For
the width of every pipe an addition of 1½ inches is calculated.

“Both cover and muslin being thus marked, we commence to draw in the
tufts. Every point marked on the cover has to lie exactly on the
corresponding one of the muslin. The lowest tufts are first drawn
in; then turn the frame and commence on one side at top, every point
of the pipes being singly stuffed and the folds adjusted. This being
done, every fold of the squares can be tufted right through, stuffed,
and folded. Squares are easier to be worked than diamonds, but
pointed pipes give more trouble than the ordinary straight ones.

“The elbow-pieces of this finish consist of two rolls made of muslin;
they are thinner towards the front of the seats. After being
stuffed, a piece of muslin 8 inches wide is sewed on all the length
to the bottom of the roll, which serves, after the roll is tacked to
the door-pillar and back, to give it the required sweep in stretching
and tacking it to the sides of the body. Then mark on the roll the
width of the pipes, and cut the cover for it, allowing 1 inch of
width; and as to the height, the cover must go all round, the roll
having to be sewed back and front to the linen with which the roll
is tacked to the body.

“After we have put in all the lining, we have to adjust the silk
curtains, the blinds and glasses to doors and front part, to cover
the iron dash-frame with the best patent leather, trim the coach-box
seat, put on all the mouldings and bearings to the body, arrange the
position of the lamps and fix them, and generally attend to all those
little finishing points which give the appearance of neatness and
finish to the whole.”

[Illustration: Fig. 55.—Double Brougham.]

Fig. 55 shows a double brougham with a circular front.




                            CHAPTER XIV.

  GENERAL REMARKS ON THE COACH-BUILDING TRADE.

It is pleasing to be able to refer to the increased skill and
ingenuity of the coach workmen, especially among the rising
generation of operatives. This fact was elicited by the recent
exhibition of coaches, &c. Not only were there shown several
excellent working drawings of carriages—drawn to scale and difficult
of execution, and showing that there are forthcoming more highly
educated and more competent men well acquainted with the details of
their crafts, and of the proper and scientific manner of setting out
their work, now that frequent change of construction renders this
knowledge so desirable—but there were also shown many clever models
of proposed improvements, the work of the ordinary carriage artisans,
showing that their originators were men of thought and energy. And
no doubt if more prizes were offered, and these exhibitions more
frequent, greater competition would be aroused, which would be the
means of bringing out a great deal of talent which at present lies
dormant for want of some inducement to call it forth.

The art of the coachmaker being an intricate one, inasmuch as he
has to combine in one harmonious whole a number of most varied
products—wood, iron, steel, brass, paint, silver, cloth, leather,
silk, ivory, hair, carpet, glass, &c., each worked by a separate
trade, but generally in one manufactory, and each of which may
be spoilt or injured by careless or improper treatment in any
process—it behoves all engaged in the production of carriages to
work in harmony, that their united labours may approach perfection.
It would add much to this desirable end if in each manufactory,
large or small, were issued a series of printed “general directions”
for conducting the work; not rigid rules that would, if strictly
enforced, reduce men to mere machines instead of free and intelligent
operatives, but such as would so guide each worker in the execution
of his work as not only to give satisfaction to his employer by
its excellent and honest execution, but bring equal credit and
satisfaction to himself. This state of feeling would be a very
desirable one to bring about; it would be the means of bringing about
mutual respect between employer and employed, and lead the way to a
more cordial appreciation of each other’s wants and difficulties; at
the same time it would lessen the incessant watchfulness and anxiety
necessary to insure the work being executed in such a manner that it
may be depended upon for accuracy and excellence when completed.

It is not so generally known as it should be, that in France,
Belgium, Germany, and some other European States, the training of
workmen and apprentices receives a great deal of attention, the
Governments in these countries considering money and trouble bestowed
on such objects to be of national importance. Technical schools
in these countries furnish instruction in drawing, modelling, the
harmonious arrangement of colours, the application of chemistry
to manufactures, metallurgy, and the proper working of metals,
the principles and applications of mathematics and mechanics to
manufactures, together with much that is strictly technical. In
some parts of Germany, before an employer of labour can commence
business on his own account, he must prove to competent persons,
by the execution of some trial work, that he understands what he
undertakes; and, moreover, that he has travelled for three years in
foreign countries, working at his trade, to acquire a knowledge of
its processes in other countries besides his own. There is doubtless
much pedantry in many of the regulations that interfere with the free
exercise of trade, but culling the best points of the system there is
much good that results. The training of apprentices in most trades in
England is very unsatisfactory, and were public attention directed to
the matter, after discussing the subject in its different bearings,
there might be some good general recommendations circulated relating
to the subject.

The carriages of America are so different from our own and from those
of Europe, that they require special attention. It is quite possible
that in the future their style may greatly influence carriages in all
parts. The first noticeable trait in them is lightness, and English
coach-builders generally agree that they carry this lightness too
far, more especially in their larger carriages. We are supported in
this view by the fact, that for some years, these—such as landaus,
broughams, and coaches—have been materially modified by European
types. The Americans have adopted some of the shapes of Europe, and
the European mode of constructing the under-carriages, retaining
their own method of making the pole and splinters, as giving greater
freedom to the horses.

This principle of allowing the horses greater freedom for action
is well worthy of the attention of coach-builders. The manner in
which our horses are confined by tight, heavy strapping and traces,
by tight pole chains, by bearing reins, and the indiscriminate use
of blinkers to the bridles, has been much overdone in England.
If a horse with a heavy load and driven fast over slippery roads
should stumble, it is most difficult for him to recover himself. He
generally falls, and is pushed along by the impetus of the carriage,
and is more or less injured in his limbs or nerves by the accident,
while it is a matter of great difficulty, if not impossibility, for
him to rise again till the harness be unstrapped and the carriage is
removed from above him. Our horses are also harnessed too closely
to their work in two-wheeled carriages. We have thought only of the
ease of turning and moving the vehicle in crowded or narrow ways,
without observing the advantage of long shafts over short shafts. If
the shafts are considered as levers, by which the horse supports and
moves the weight behind him in a two-wheeled cart, it will at once
be obvious that although (whilst those levers are parallel with the
road) it does not so much signify whether they are long or short,
yet the moment they cease to be parallel with the road, when they
point upwards, or more particularly when they point downwards, the
difference between long and short levers is severely felt by the
horse. We can all of us lift a weight or support a weight more easily
with a long lever than with a short one, and it is the same with a
horse.

Those who have travelled abroad must have noticed the great weights
placed upon two-wheeled carts in France and Belgium, and the greater
comparative distance the horse is placed from the wheels, and yet he
carries his load easily enough, because he does not feel its weight
upon his back. Many English drivers seem to have observed this, and
try and ease the horse and lessen his chance of stumbling by tipping
the shafts up in front; but in this way the horse is made to feel
a pressure on the under part of his body, which certainly will not
improve his health. It is very probable that in future years public
opinion will be in favour of longer shafts and poles. This will also
tend to preserve good carriages from the damages they at present
suffer from the heat of the horses and the quantity of mud which is
thrown by their heels upon the front of the vehicle. The reins will
of course have to be longer, but this cannot be of much consequence;
the driver of a brougham is farther from the horse than the driver of
a mail phaeton, but it is not by any means true that the brougham is
any more difficult to drive than the phaeton on that account.

There is another fashion prevalent in this country which is certainly
a fallacy, viz. the supposed necessity for the driver to sit
nearly upright, which necessitates a deep boot and a clumsy, thick
coachman’s cushion. In America, Russia, and parts of Germany, the
driver sits low, but places his foot against a bar in front of the
footboard; this in their carriages is longer than in ours. Four
horses can be driven very well and easily in a low landau, and very
powerful-pulling and fast-trotting horses held in with apparent
ease. Our coachmen are often in danger of being pulled over by their
horses, and certainly when an accident happens in a collision they
are easily thrown from the boxes. They do not have the purchase and
security that the Russian drivers seem to possess.

One of the greatest novelties introduced by the Americans into the
United States is the “buggy,” a name first given in England a hundred
years ago to a light two-wheeled cart, carrying one person only, and
which we now call a “sulky.”

The Americans have lavished all their ingenuity upon these buggies,
and they have arrived at a marvellous perfection of lightness. They
are hung upon two elliptical springs. The axles and carriage timber
have been reduced to mere thin sticks. The four wheels are made so
slender as to resemble a spider’s web. Instead of the circumference
of the wheel being composed of a number of felloes, they consist of
only two of oak or hickory wood, bent to the shape by steam. The
ironwork is very slender and yet composed of many pieces, and in
order to reduce the cost these pieces are mostly cast, not forged,
of a sort of iron less brittle than our cast iron. The bodies are of
light work like what we call cabinet work. The weight of the whole
vehicle is so small that one man can easily lift it upon its wheels
again if it should be accidentally upset, and two persons of ordinary
strength can raise it easily from the ground. The four wheels are
of nearly the same height, and the body is suspended centrally
between them. There are no futchells; the pole or shafts are attached
to the front axletree bed, and the front of the pole is carried by
the horses in just the same way that they carry the shafts. The
splinter-bar and whipple-trees are attracted to the pole on swivels.
Some are made with hoods and some without. The hoods are made so that
the leather of the sides can be taken off and rolled up, and the back
leather rolled, removed, or fixed at the bottom, a few inches away
from the back, the roof remaining as a sun-shade. The leather-work is
very thin and of beautifully supple enamelled leather.

The perfection to which this vehicle has been carried is certainly
wonderful; and every part that is weak or likely to give way is
carefully strengthened. If well made they last a long time without
repair. The whole is so slender that it “gives” and recovers at any
obstacle. The defect in these carriages in English eyes consists
of the difficulty of getting in or out, by reason of the height of
the front wheel and its proximity to the hind wheel. It is often
necessary to partly lock round the wheel to allow of easy entrance.
There is also a tremulous motion on a hard road that is not always
agreeable. It is not surprising, however, that with the great
advantages of extreme lightness, ease, and durability, and with lofty
wheels, these vehicles travel with facility over very rough roads,
as there is a great demand for them in our colonies. It must be
remembered that the price is small, much less than the price of our
gigs and four-wheeled dog-carts. This cheapness is attained by making
large numbers to the same pattern, by the use of cast iron clips,
couplings, and stays, and by using machinery in sawing, shaping,
grooving, and mortising the timbers, and by the educated dexterity
of the American workman, always ready to adopt any improvement. An
educated man will make a nimble workman, just as an educated man
learns his drill from the military instructor more quickly than a
clown; and an educated man finds out the value of machinery and
desires to use and improve it. Instead of fearing its rivalry he
welcomes it; he remembers that all tools, even the saw and the
hammer, are machines, and that the hand that guides these tools is
but a perfect machine obeying the guidance of the brain more quickly
and in a more varied manner than any man-made machine. The American
workman, therefore, uses machines more and more.

In England machinery for wood shaping is used at Derby, Newcastle,
Nottingham, Worcester, and other towns, and in Paris some very good
machinery is at work in coach factories. In London it is chiefly
confined to patent wheel factories, a few steam-driven saws, patent
mills worked by hand, and drilling and punching machines. But until
the use of machinery is more generally adopted in London, it is
probable that the trade of building carriages for export will drift
more and more to the provinces and the continent. The saving effected
by machinery in cab and omnibus building would be great, because the
patterns vary so little, and all the other parts of a carriage would
correspond with another, and counter-change when repairs were needed.

The coach-builders of the future will look to steam and hand
machinery as their great assistance in cheapening the cost of
first-rate carriages, in multiplying them for the probable increased
demand, and also to build carriages more speedily. It now takes from
two to three months to build a brougham, of which at least five weeks
are consumed simply in the wood and ironwork, a period which by the
use of machinery might easily be shortened.

There has been much controversy about difference in the length of
the front and hind axletree. It has been usual to make no greater
difference than will allow the higher wheel to follow in the same
track as the lower wheel. In France, however, it has been the
practice since the year 1846 to make the front axletree of broughams
6 inches shorter than the hind ones. The object has been to allow
the front wheel to be placed nearer to the body. As the front wheel
of a brougham must turn entirely in front of the body, the additional
gain of 3 inches was very desirable. Some English coach-builders have
followed the example of the French. There is a decided gain. The eye
is pleased with the proportions, the horse is eased, and upon hard
roads the difference of track is of no consequence. On the other
hand, in the country roads, the well-worn ruts make the running of
the carriage uneasy, whilst in town the driver often forgets that
the curbstones will strike his hind wheels sooner than his front
ones, and also more mud is thrown upon the panels. Under these
circumstances it is very probable that the French plan will not find
universal favour.

If carriages had always to move along perfectly smooth roads such as
a tramway of wood, stone, or iron, the use of wheels in overcoming
friction would be their sole utility, and their height would be of
small consequence. But as carriages are drawn along roads with loose
stones and uneven surfaces, wheels are further useful in mounting
these obstacles, and it is plain that a high wheel does this more
easily than a low wheel. To demonstrate this, let us suppose a
shallow ditch or gulley of a foot wide and 2 inches deep, a wheel 2
feet high would sink into this and touch the bottom, but a wheel 3
feet high would only sink an inch, and a wheel 4 feet 6 inches high
would only sink half an inch (the wheels are supposed to cross the
above-mentioned gulley at right angles), on account of their greater
diameters. Consequently, while the large wheel would have to be
lifted by a force sufficient to raise it half an inch, a force will
have to be applied to the smaller wheel to raise it 2 inches, and
under more disadvantageous circumstances, because the spokes are in
this case the levers, and we know that the longer the lever the more
easily is the load raised.

That the leverage power of a high wheel is very great is shown by
the advantages gained by a large wheel in locomotives and bicycles.

There is an idea deeply rooted among coach-builders and coach-buyers
too, that the draught of a vehicle is diminished by placing the front
part of the carriage as far back as possible. Intelligent men who
have given the subject great attention, and tested the actual working
of this idea, say that it is a fallacy; but other intelligent men,
who also say they have tested its working, say that it would effect
a great saving in the draught if it were successfully accomplished.
The general idea amongst practical men is, that it would not be an
advantage. We have already seen that the draught of a vehicle with
large wheels is less than that of a vehicle with small wheels. If,
therefore, a load has to be placed on a four-wheeled vehicle, it
should be so placed in relation to the front and hind wheels that
the greater part of the weight should rest on the higher wheels. To
obtain this result, it is sufficient to bring the hind-carriage part
as far under the body as it will work with comfort and safety, in
order that as little weight as possible rests on the fore-carriage
part. English coachmakers have been working at this for thirty years,
but for the most part blindly; they have copied well known builders
in construction as well as shape; they hear that these well known
firms’ carriages run and follow very lightly, and if they could copy
accurately they would obtain the same reputation.

[Illustration: Fig. 56.—Single Brougham.]

But while there is some doubt as to throwing the front wheels
backward for the purpose of lessening the draught, Mr. Offord of
Wells Street, Oxford Street, has been exercising his ingenuity for
the purpose of throwing the back wheels further forward, and has
produced a brougham that offers peculiar advantages in this respect
(Fig. 56). The hind wheel appears to be placed right across the door,
but the facilities for ingress and egress are quite equal to those
given in the ordinary brougham. This novel contrivance presents
nothing singular in appearance, while a very little reflection will
satisfy the practical thinker that the advantage sought after, of
lessening the draught of the carriage, must be obtained far more
completely with this arrangement than by throwing the front wheel
backward.

The rattling so constantly complained of in carriages can in a great
degree be obviated by placing pieces of india-rubber so that the
doors shall press upon them when closed; it is a good thing also to
have india-rubber at the bottom of the doors for the windows to drop
upon when let down.

The difficulty of protecting carriages from the dirt has recently
been met by placing what is called a “mud scraper” just at the back
of the hind wheels. It is formed of a piece of india-rubber about 3
inches square and a ¼ inch thick, held in position by a short iron
rod attached to the end of the hind spring.

The elaborate dress carriages, hung with braces upon a C and
under-spring perch carriage, require so much skill and practice in
their manufacture that it is impossible to give ample directions
for their construction in a work like this. Some years ago it was
thought that no carriage could be made comfortable unless it was hung
upon the old-fashioned perch carriage with braces; but it was found
that by the introduction of india-rubber, especially in the ends of
each spring, that what are termed elliptic spring carriages (which
are of course much lighter in draught and less in cost) can be made
extremely pleasant in motion.

[Illustration: Fig. 57.]

Fig. 57 shows an iron-framed or “skeleton boot” for a landau. It is
extremely light and strong.

It is desirable to direct attention to the proper horsing of
carriages, that the owners of carriages and horses may so adapt their
plans as to get the most satisfactory result from their arrangements.
Not unfrequently a carriage is ordered for one horse only; when
it is partly made, or perhaps finished, fittings are ordered for
two horses; and it sometimes happens that the two horses put to
the light one-horse carriage are coach-horses, between sixteen and
seventeen hands in height. Such horses, though well adapted to a
family carriage, are quite out of their place attached to a light
one. Although they can draw it at a good pace, and over almost any
obstacle in the road, and do their journey without fatigue, the
carriage suffers sooner or later. The lounging of such horses against
a light pole, the strain thrown on the pole in case of a horse
tripping, the certain breakage that must occur in case of a fall,
and the risk of overturning the carriage, should all be considered
before putting a very light carriage behind very large horses. It
also sometimes happens that miniature broughams and other very small
carriages, built as light and as slight as safety will allow, are
afterwards used with a pair of horses. In such cases, if accidents do
not occur through the great strain of a long pole acting as a lever
on very light mechanism, the parts become strained, do not work as
they were intended to do, and necessitate constant repair from not
being adapted to the work put upon them. Carriage owners should, in
their own interest, have their carriages and horses suited to what
they ought and can undergo, bearing in mind that there are advantages
and disadvantages both with heavy and light carriages. The former are
easier and more comfortable to ride in; they are safer for horses,
drivers, and riders; and the necessary repairs are less frequently
required. The lighter carriages follow the horses more easily, and
can therefore do a longer day’s journey; and, although the necessary
repairs may come more frequently, the saving of the horses may be an
advantage that many persons will consider of the utmost importance.
Such light carriages should, however, be made of the choicest
materials and workmanship, that they may do the work required of them.

A feature in the financial department of coach-making must not be
overlooked, as it has much influence on an important trade. In former
times a large proportion of the carriages were built to order for the
owners; the reverse is now the case; most persons select a finished
carriage which pleases their taste, or an advanced one, and get it
completed their favourite colour. This, of course, necessitates the
employment of a larger capital to meet the altered state of trade,
which now requires so large a stock of carriages to be kept ready for
use.

The excessive competition of recent years has so reduced the profit
on each carriage, that in order to carry on his business without
loss, the builder has to require a prompt payment from his customer
instead of giving a long credit.

The modern system enables the coach-builder to make his purchases for
ready money, and so buy not only better in quality but at a less cost
than for extended credit, in order that he might in his turn give
long credit to his customers, so that he is now obliged to depend
on small profits and quick returns by turning over his capital more
rapidly. He is not now, as much as in former times, the agent of
the persons who supply the materials that he and his workmen convert
into a carriage, but rather the designer, capitalist, and director
of those who seek his service or custom, whether to supply labour or
materials.

From the Government returns we find that carriages of all sorts have
increased from 60,000, in 1814, to 432,600 in 1874—a benefit to the
general population, it is clear, as well as to the workmen. In 1874,
125,000 carriages paid the Government duty.

The valuable library and fine series of photographs of state and
other carriages of the Coach and Coach Harness Makers’ Company are
open to coach artisans every Saturday afternoon. Tickets of admission
may be obtained at the principal coach-builders in London.

In Calcutta there are several coach-builders of good reputation, and
who employ large numbers of native workmen. Messrs. Dyke employ 600
hands; Messrs. Stewart and Co., 400; and Messrs. Eastman, 300. The
men are chiefly Hindoos, and are clever and industrious, but have a
singular habit of sitting down to their work. Owing to the prejudices
of the people in regard to the use of animal fat, the labourers who
have to use grease are chiefly Mahommedans. The wages in the trade
vary from sixpence to two shillings per day.

“In Hindostan” (says Mr. Thrupp) “there are a large number of
vehicles of native build. It has been frequently remarked that
there is little change in Eastern fashions, that tools and workmen
are precisely as they were a thousand years ago, and the work they
produce is precisely the same. In examining, therefore, what is now
done by Indian coach-builders, we are probably noticing carriages of
a similar, if not identical, sort with those in use three thousand
years ago. The commonest cart in Hindostan is called ‘hackery’ by
Europeans; it is on two wheels, with a high axletree bed and a
long platform, frequently made of two bamboos which join in front
and form the pole, to which two oxen are yoked; the whole length is
united by smaller pieces of bamboo, tied together, not nailed. In
France two hundred years ago there was a similar cart, but the main
beams terminated in front in shafts; in neither the cart of India nor
of France were there any sides or ends. The French cart is called
_haquet_, and it is probable that the French, who were in India as
well as ourselves, may have given the term hackery to the native cart
which was so like their own. The native name, however, is _gharry_.
Other carts have sides made by stakes driven into the side beams;
the wheels are sometimes of solid wood or even of stone. Wheels are
also made by a plank with rounded ends and two felloes fitted on
to complete the circle. Again wheels are made like ours, and also
with six or eight spokes, which are placed in pairs, each pair close
to and parallel with one another. If a carriage for the rich is
required the underworks are like those of a cart, but the pole is
carefully padded and ornamented with handsome cloths or velvet; the
sides of the body are railed or carved, and the top is of a very
ornamental character, similar to the howdah of state that is placed
on an elephant. It has a domed roof supported upon four pillars, with
curtains to the back and sides. The passengers ride cross-legged
under the dome on pillows. The driver sits on the pole, which is
broad at the butt end, and he is screened from the heat by a cloth
which is fastened to the dome roof, and supported upon two stakes
which point outwards from the body. A variety of different shaped
native vehicles may be seen in elaborate models in the Indian Museum
at South Kensington, although they do not show much originality of
design or beauty of execution, and are said to be really creaking and
lumbering affairs. When the Hindoos wish for a four-wheeled vehicle,
the plan appears to be to hook on one two-wheeled carriage behind
another, connecting them with a perch bolt, and on the hindermost
they place the body. There is a singular addition to their vehicles
outside the wheels; a piece of wood curved to the shape of the wheels
is placed above it, frequently supported by two straight uprights
from the end of the axletree outside the wheel. This acts as a wing
or guard to keep any one from falling out of the vehicle, and also
the dress of the passengers from becoming entangled in the wheel.
In addition, a long bar of wood, rather longer than the diameter of
the wheel, curved to the shape, called ‘Cupid’s bow,’ is fastened
to the axletree, the linch-pin being outside of it, and the ends of
the bar tied to the ends of the wing by cords. I imagine it to be
placed in order to be a safeguard for the people in crowded streets,
who might be pushed by the throng against the wheel. It will be seen
in many of the models, and also in ancient drawings of Indian and
Persian vehicles. Many of the carts which are designed to carry heavy
loads have a curved rest from 20 to 30 inches long attached to the
lower side of the front end of the pole; this serves not only as a
prop while the vehicle is being loaded, but should the oxen trip and
fall it supports the cart and prevents the load, yoke, and harness
from weighing down the poor animals, as they struggle to recover
themselves. In England we have very few of these humane contrivances;
we have, however, short rests to prop up a hansom cab when not at
work. In India there are several huge unwieldy structures on wheels
called ‘idol cars;’ the name of the car of Juggernaut must be
familiar to many. The wheels of some of these are of enormous blocks
of stone, shaped and drilled for the work. In the Indian Museum is
a photograph of an idol car from South India, in the district of
Chamoondee and the province of Mysore, which deserves examination.
The car appears well proportioned, and the ornamental carvings are
beautiful in design and would bear comparison with most European work.

“The _hecca_, or _heka_, is a one-horse native car, resembling
an Irish car. It consists of a tray for the body fixed above the
wheels on the shafts, and has a canopy roof; the driver sits on the
front edge of the tray, and the passenger cross-legged behind him.
The _shampony_ is the usual vehicle for women, which resembles the
former, but it is larger; the wheels are outside the body, and it is
drawn by two bullocks; the canopy roof is furnished with curtains
that are drawn all round, and the driver sits on the pole in front of
the body. All these native vehicles have wooden axles, which until
recently, I am told, were used without grease, from the prejudices
of the people forbidding them to use animal fat. Some used olive oil
or soap, but in most large towns there are now regulations obliging
the natives to use some substance to avoid the noise and creaking
of the dry axles. The commonest carriages in Central India are
called ‘_tongas_,’ but the universal native word for a vehicle is
‘_gharry_.’”

In 1860 a carriage was made for one of the ladies of the Sultan of
Turkey’s harem. It was built, I believe, from a design by the late
Owen Jones—a great authority upon Oriental art—and cost £15,000 of
English money—a very expensive present for the Commander of the
Faithful to make to one out of many wives.

The following is given in an American trade periodical, under the
heading of “Are they Competent Judges?”—

“Carriage-makers who seldom if ever take the lines into their
hands and ride out in carriages of their own manufacture, are they
competent judges of the merits or the demerits of the vehicles which
they with confidence recommend to others? We think not. It is one
thing to oversee and pay well for the building of a fine buggy or any
other kind of vehicle, and quite another to experience the sensations
produced by putting them into actual wear. A buggy may be handsome in
general appearance and composed of the best material, yet defective
in ease of motion and comfort to the occupants. The set of the axle
may cause the vehicle to run heavy, and communicate to the rider
an unpleasant jarring motion, and at the same time add unnecessary
labour to the horse. The springs may be too stiff for their length,
and fail to vibrate sufficiently under the greatest weight they may
be called upon to sustain. The seat may be too low, the back placed
in such a position or so trimmed as to be a continual source of
uneasiness, and the foot-room be cramped. These and other defects may
exist while the carriage-maker who seldom rides out remains in total
ignorance of them, in so far as his own personal experience extends.
Now an individual having purchased a buggy of such a one, might drive
up to his door and inform him that this or that defect existed and
needed to be remedied, and fail to convince the maker that such was
the case. He would probably plead the skill of his workman, the care
with which every buggy was carried forward to completion, and thus
fortify himself in his own opinions, through gross ignorance of what
constituted comfort while seated in a vehicle carried along over
roads of different degrees of smoothness.

“The tendency of such a course is toward a standstill point in the
way of needed improvement, and must certainly work adversely to the
carriage-makers’ interests. So far as our observation extends, we
are well satisfied that the builder who adopts an opposite course is
by far the most successful. Becoming sensible of defects by personal
experience, he is keenly sensitive and anxious to remove any cause
of complaint brought to his notice by others. With such a one the
customer feels that he is dealing with a manufacturer alive to his
convenience and comfort, and will not be apt to go elsewhere to
purchase, although he may have had occasion to point out several weak
points.”

“The truly progressive carriage-maker tests his own work by
frequently taking airing and criticisms of those who ride a great
deal and are competent to speak on such points, and to any little
defects that may be shown he gives the most careful examination and
attention. No matter who may suggest a new idea of value, he puts it
away as so much gained. He gathers here a little and there a little,
which, in the aggregate, when applied as little things, amount to
something so important as to give to his work an indescribable
_something_ which marks it as superior, and in short gives it a
distinctive character.”

It is too often the case that we look upon success in business as
that condition only in which a man has secured to himself sufficient
income to retire and lead a life of comparative ease and pleasure.
While we would say nothing against an individual choosing to retire
from active pursuits and enjoy the fruits of his labour, nevertheless
the example thus set has a tendency to create in others a desire to
_speedily_ arrive at such a position careless of the means used to
attain the end, and bringing into the business other elements than
industry and the other good qualities necessary for the safe conduct
of business, viz. grasping avarice, cunning deceit, and at times
heartlessness, or, in fact, any legal means by which they can follow
the American’s advice to his son: “Get money, honestly if you can,
but get money.” These mean, sordid feelings of course react upon the
employés, and they feel them in the shape of reduced wages and having
the greatest amount of work literally ground out of them.

We hear occasionally of a man who, by a bold speculation, has “made
a fortune” in a few months, but the majority of business men are not
gifted with that keen foresight and courage which are so essential
to the speculator, and must therefore be content with small gains,
accumulating slowly year by year.

It is well that it is so, for the cares and disappointments attendant
on the conducting of any business keep down pride of heart, and
secure to society a majority of that class of men who can sympathise
with the unfortunate and down-trodden, and who give more liberally
to the rearing of those institutions which benefit and improve the
masses.

Success depends in a great measure on the knowledge of the business
engaged in, the proper application of industry to the materials
required, frugality, promptness in meeting engagements, and good
moral character.

In no occupation are the above qualities more essential than that of
the manufacture of carriages, yet how few out of the whole number
who claim to be carriage-makers have a good general knowledge of the
business. Four distinct branches have to be looked after—woodwork,
blacksmithing, painting, and trimming. The materials used by the
respective branches are entirely dissimilar and costly, and require
the utmost vigilance on the part of the proprietor to see that there
is no unnecessary waste.

We shall close this chapter with the following remarks on “Taste”
from W. Bridges Adams’s valuable book on “English Pleasure
Carriages:”—

“There is a notion prevalent amongst uninstructed people that the
quality called taste is a peculiar gift which an individual is
endowed with at birth, and which cannot be acquired by any amount
of application. Some portion of this belief is founded on reason,
inasmuch as the physical faculties of some individuals at their
birth are more perfect than those of others. Some are born with weak
and some with strong eyes, and the same difference may exist in
the perceptive faculties generally, on which faculties the quality
of taste must depend. But even as weak eyes may be strengthened by
judicious treatment, and strong eyes may be weakened by injudicious
treatment, so inferior perceptive faculties may be improved by
cultivation, and those which might have been first-rate may disappear
by neglect. Even in those nations where the germs of taste are
developed in but few individuals, where the mass of the community
cannot discover beauty for themselves, they are yet susceptible of
its influence when it is placed before them by others.

“Taste may be considered as another word for truth or proportion,
both morally and physically. Much false taste exists in the
community, and always has existed, but the total amount is
continually lessening. The reason of the false taste is the imitative
nature of man, which in an uncultivated state follows without
examining. But even as it is the nature of water to attain a state of
rest after violent oscillation, so it is the tendency of truth and
proportion to grow out of the chaos of either thought or matter.

“Carriages constructed for the purposes of pleasure are works of
art, in which taste may be widely developed in form, colour, and
proportion, but the former is of course subservient to the mechanical
construction. The hitherto defective mechanism of carriages, in
which ‘a large wheel is made to follow a small one,’ has to a great
extent destroyed proportion, and given a general license to all kinds
of heterogeneous devices and barbarous ornaments, as if to overlay
defects which there were no apparent means of obviating. Custom
has reconciled the public to this discrepancy, which, were it now
to appear for the first time, would excite universal distaste and
ridicule.

“In an ordinary coach the side form of the body is composed of
elliptic lines, from which the supporting iron brackets or loops are
continued into reversed curves. This contrivance keeps the centre
of gravity low. The four C springs from which the body is suspended
are each, or ought to be, two-thirds of a circle, with a tangent
to it to form a base or support. The perch beneath the body, which
connects together the framework supporting the spring, is curved
into a serpentine line corresponding to the bottom of the body and
the loops; and thus an agreeable form is preserved. But the double
framework in front and the unequal wheels entirely discompose
the whole effect, and from an art point of view it is extremely
disproportioned, and consequently unsightly.

“Now the manufacturer possessing taste steps in, and by lightening
the heavy parts by beading, carving, &c., fine lines of colour,
and the arrangement of the hammercloth, redeems the vehicle from
positive ugliness, and produces a work of art by the harmony of the
various curves as a whole, though to produce this harmony there are
no well-ascertained rules. Therefore it is that the builder who
possesses taste produces combinations pleasing to the eye, and he who
is without taste produces unsightly works, which he is necessarily
obliged to sell at a low rate of profit as mere articles of
convenience, not of refinement. And even as articles of convenience
they are imperfect, inasmuch as the harmony of form arises from the
due proportion of parts to each other, and that very proportion
produces a greater amount of convenience. The size and weight of a
carriage ought to be proportioned to that of the horse or horses
intended to draw it, as well as the locality in which it is to be
used and the persons who are likely to use it; and the proportion
of parts having once been accurately settled, the same rule of
proportion must be observed, whether on an increasing or diminishing
scale.

“After settling on the preliminary of form, the next consideration
is that of colour. Taste in the latter can do much towards amending
defects in the former, or at least can divert the attention of
ordinary observers from dwelling upon them. Certain colours produce
their effect by contrast, as green and red, purple and yellow, orange
and blue, &c. others produce their effect by harmony, as green and
drab, or brown and amber; others again by gradation, as the differing
shades of green and brown in almost endless variety. Colours are
divided into two chief classes, the warm and the cold. Red and yellow
and their varying gradations are warm colours. Green and blue and
their varying gradations are cold colours. The intermingling of
opposite colours produces neutrals. In choosing the colour for a
carriage, it should be considered whether durability or appearance
is the first consideration. For this country the warm colours are
the most appropriate, as we hardly have enough of summer weather to
render the adoption of cold colours general, except to such people
as can afford carriages for each different season. The richest
looking colours are not those which wear the best as a rule; but as
an exception to this the yellows, which are both rich and showy, are
amongst the most durable colours. For bright sunny days the straw, or
sulphur yellow, is very brilliant and beautiful. Dark greens have a
very rich appearance, but they do not wear well, the slightest specks
being magnified by the dark surface. The olive greens are preferable,
more especially for the summer, as they show the dust less, and are
very good wearing colours. The shades of brown are even more numerous
than those of the greens, and equally durable, though some of the
lighter shades have a rather unpleasing effect, far too homely for
varnish. Some of the darker browns become exceedingly rich with the
admixture of a reddish tint, from the first faint tint up to the deep
beautiful chocolate colour, the intermediate shades between which and
a decided lake afford perhaps the very richest ground colours used in
carriage-painting. Blues were formerly a great deal used to contrast
with a red carriage part and framework. Very dark blues are now often
used, but they soon become worn and faded, the least speck of dust
disfiguring them. Drabs are scarcely ever used for body painting,
though for some peculiar purposes they might be advantageously
applied.

“In addition to the ground colour other colours are used to relieve
it, the framework of the body being generally painted black; and in
the case of a very dark colour being used for the ground, it becomes
necessary to run a fine line of a lighter shade in order to mark the
inner edges of the framework. The same process is applied to the
carriage parts and under framework for the purpose of making it look
lighter to the eye. Were the perch, beds, and wheels painted of one
colour they would look exceedingly heavy and clumsy; but the skilful
management of the fine lines, or ‘picking out,’ as it is technically
called, produces a pleasing optical illusion. The same effect is
sought also in the carved work, which would look very bare were it
not heightened and brought into relief by the judicious application
of black and coloured lines. Heraldic bearings used to be painted
very large on the panels; in fact they formed the principal ornament,
as they were painted in their proper heraldic colours. With bright
grounds, such as yellow, the effect is often very good, but with most
other colours it destroys the general harmony, and on this account it
has been the custom of late years to paint them very small, and very
often of the same colour as the ground, only lightened up to give
relief. This is of course the other extreme.

“Proportion in carriages applies to both form and colour; as regards
form, it regulates the sizes of the various parts so that the
whole may harmonise, and dictates the adoption of contrivances for
lessening the apparent size of those parts which would otherwise be
unseemly. Thus, the total height which is necessary in the body for
the comfort of the passengers is too great for the length which it is
convenient to give it; therefore the total height is reduced, and to
give sufficient leg room a false bottom is affixed by means of convex
rockers, and which, being thrown back and painted black, cease to
form a portion of the elevation; they are, like a foundation, out of
sight, and thus the proportion of the front view (the side is called
the _front_ in coach-builder’s parlance) is preserved. In painting
the body of a coach or chariot, it is customary to confine the ground
colour to the lower panels and to paint the upper ones black, all
except some stripes on the upper part of the doors. Now, inasmuch as
colour in this case constitutes form by means of outline, and as
that outline gives an irregular figure, it is a decidedly defective
arrangement, making the upper part of the structure look heavier
than the base. But the fact is, this defect has not been caused by
intentional bad taste; it is a mere result of imitation, of following
up old practices when the motive for them has ceased. It was formerly
the custom to cover the roofs and upper panels with greasy leather
in order to make them water-tight, the edges of the leather being
fastened down with rows of brass nails. This leather was black, and
thus the eye became gradually reconciled to an unsightly object from
a consideration of utility. After it was discovered that undressed
leather could be strained on and painted, it was still considered
necessary to paint it black, as the surface was not smooth enough to
show well with bright colours; and now that wooden panels are used to
the upper as well as the lower part, long custom has made the black
colour of the upper part appear indispensable.

“As by the present mode of constructing bodies various joints are
left exposed to view, where leather unites with wood or two varieties
of wood join in the same surface, it becomes necessary to resort to
some means of covering them, and this is usually done by beading, as
previously described. This is not altogether satisfactory as usually
done, as it gives the side lines a broken and unfinished appearance.
Where the beading is blacked it does not show much and scarcely
matters, but the polished beading should go over the whole of the
outline, as is done in some of the best carriages, or else it should
not show at all. The elegance of a carriage depends on the perfection
of the outlines, and anything which tends to disturb those outlines
should be avoided.

“The handles of the doors are always made conspicuous, being of brass
or plated metal. Necessity dictates this, as the constant action of
the hand in opening or shutting the doors prohibits the use of paint
on account of its rapid wear. The side of the carriage would look
better without this prominent projection if it could be avoided, but
as that is impracticable it is generally placed at the intersection
of the central vertical and the central horizontal lines, where it
interferes less with the outlines than it would in any other position.

“In the lining and trimming of a carriage, form, colour, and
proportion are all requisites. All dress carriages have hammercloths
or coloured drapery surrounding the driver’s seat. This forms a most
prominent object, and if it does not harmonise with the rest of
the vehicle the proportion of parts will be destroyed. The general
form of the outline must be regulated by the lines of the ironwork
or framework on which it is supported. There is great room for the
display of taste in arranging that the colour of the hammercloth
and lace, &c., shall harmonise or effectively contrast with the
colour of the body. Yellow carriages are sometimes fitted with blue
hammercloths and sometimes with drab ones, and the effect is equally
good in both cases when well managed.”

Careful attention to the above points will enable the practical
coach-builder to produce a vehicle as near artistic perfection as the
present shapes will allow.




                             CHAPTER XV.

  INVENTION.


English carriage constructors are certainly not an inventive race, if
we allow that the names by which carriages are known are indicative
of their origin. Coach is derived from the Hungarian _kotsee_,
chariot is French, chaise is French, landau is German, cabriolet is
French, and so on with many other names.

But mere invention—mere original conception—does not constitute
excellence; and if foreigners may fairly lay claim to the greatest
originality, English artists have the merit, perhaps still more
important, of gradually improving the original designs, and so
contriving all the details that, in their state of comparative
excellence, the carriages can be scarcely recognised as constructions
of the same principle as their models.

That English artists are not remarkable for the invention of new
carriages is no proof of their want of talent; they have invention in
abundance if there were sufficient motives to call it forth, and as
a matter of fact invention is but poorly paid for. England possesses
abundance of mind and matter, and there is no country in which a
union of the two is just now more indispensable, and yet there is no
country which throws greater obstacles in the way of the development
of its minds. On an English patent lasting _fourteen_ years the
stamp duties amount to £175, whilst on an American patent lasting
_seventeen_ years the duty is only £7, or ¹⁄₂₅th of the English
stamp duty. Under such a system no one will be surprised to find that
on December 31st, 1879, there were only 15,755 patents in force in
England, as against more than 200,000 in the United States. (These
figures, of course, refer to patents of all kinds.) It has been
calculated that about 10 per cent. of patentees manage to survive
the seventh year of their patents, at which time the £100 duty is
payable; that is to say, as far as their patents are concerned.

English artists and artisans are little more than merchants in
their trades and methods of doing business; they cannot afford to
lose time, and their principal object is to make as large an annual
return as possible, and as large a profit as possible on that return.
Continental men are more enthusiastic lovers of their arts and
sciences. They aim at improvement from mere liking for it, and when
they fail it is mostly from want of efficient workmen to further
their designs. The demand with them is not sufficient to make every
branch of their art a manufacture. In England, on the contrary, the
manufacture of carriages is a work of many trades, and greater skill
is produced in manipulation by the division of labour. If chance
brings in a new fashion, competition is aroused, which does not
subside until some degree of improvement or excellence be obtained.

The ordinary measure of talent is held to be success, _i.e._ the
acquisition of property; though it is quite clear the qualities
which insure success are not those which tend to produce excellence
or improvement in carriages more than in any other arts. The
inventor may produce, but it is for the most part the mere merchant
or tradesman who profits by the inventions. Carriages are made
to sell as plays are written to fill theatres, and the English
carriage-builder takes a French or German carriage to improve
upon because it saves his time and trouble, just as the English
play-writer freely uses a French play to save the labour of his
brains. Improvements are rarely the voluntary productions of English
carriage-builders; they are forced on them by the purchasers—first
individuals and then the mass—who desire some mere novelty, others
greater ease, and others a more rapid rate of motion. Almost all
the changes and improvements in carriages may be traced in their
origin to the carriage users and not the carriage-builders. The
carriage-builders do not lead, but they have always the means of
pressing talent enough into their service whenever a sufficient
demand offers them a remunerating return. Coaches were first invented
on the Continent, but it was in England that they were improved into
public stages, capable of being run 10 miles and upwards per hour for
days and weeks together.

This was not done at once, or by any one man: it was the combined
result of numberless small improvements, forced on by the necessity
of overcoming practical difficulties. Coach-builders have not been
remarkable as a scientific body. They have been, strictly speaking,
“practical men;” and as the knowledge they have gained by experience
has not been carefully hoarded in books, carriage construction
has remained a sort of occult matter, without any specific theory
attached to it. Each one, as he is freshly initiated, gains his
knowledge as best he can—from verbal instruction or from a new
series of experiments—and thus a considerable portion of his time
must elapse ere he can have verified his judgment. Enough of this
knowledge exists in various brains which might suffice for the
construction of a sound theory, but it would be a difficult operation
to gather it together, for many petty feelings would be at work.

Many experimentalists understand the word _theory_ as synonymous
with falsehood or absurdity, as the very opposite of _practice_. It
is clear that practice must be the ultimate verification of theory;
but every true practice must have a true theory belonging to it.
The _theory_ of a subject is the _science_ or philosophy of that
subject; practice is the positive knowledge or proof of the soundness
of the theory. But as theories are more plentiful than practices,
and as many of them are not verified, there are of course many false
ones. On this ground unscientific experimentalists have acquired
the habit of regarding _all_ theory as false, which is about as
reasonable as it would be to assert that because falsehood exists
in the world, all truth must therefore be extinct. This peculiarity
is not confined to carriage-building; engineering and architecture
abound with it; and law and medicine are not wanting in it. The truth
is, that human knowledge is only got together by small portions
at a time in the school of experiment, and when that knowledge is
considerable in any one branch, a true and verified theory may be
constructed from it. And when a great number of subjects have thus
been analysed and theorised, it is comparatively easy to construct
theories by analogy on new subjects by sound principles. Newton’s
theory of the universe was just as true when he first developed it in
thought as after he had verified it by calculation.

It is a common notion that a mechanical inventor must necessarily be
a man of genius; but, if the matter be analysed, it will be found
that though inventors are occasionally men of genius it is not by
any means a general rule. _Invention_, in its ordinary sense, as the
word implies, is the art of _finding out_. By _genius_ is meant a
species of creative power, like that of the poet, for example, in his
highest state of excellence. Invention is of two kinds—one resulting
from a quick habit of observation, which detects the applicability of
various forms of matter to similar objects. Of this an example may
be given in the case of Dr. Wollaston, who, in a hurried experiment
needing some lime which was not at hand, suddenly cast his eye on
his ivory paper-cutter, and with some scrapings from its surface
accomplished his object. This quick habit of observation, when
it goes to the production of beautiful forms, is akin to fancy.
The other and higher kind of invention is that which results from
bringing a theory into practice—from first imagining a desirable
result, and then bringing it to bear by the exercise of the judgment
and constant persevering efforts steadily directed through a long
period of time. The names of Brindley and Watt are examples of this
quality. When Brindley set to work upon canals he did not create, he
merely formed the plan of levelling the surfaces of natural streams
by drawing off the water into new channels of sufficient depth,
and thus preventing the water from being wasted. The process of
forming locks was a continued series of mechanical contrivances with
purpose aforethought. When Watt first imagined the steam engine he
did not invent the power of steam; that was known long before, and
had existed from the time that fire and water had existed. But he
formed to himself the plan by which he hoped to realise the result
of making steam an efficient human servant through the agency of a
perfect machine. The general idea of this machine existed in his
mind a long time before he brought it into practice; and the slow
process by which this was accomplished is evidenced by the fact that
the term of his patent right was extended by Act of Parliament, on
the ground that he had not had sufficient time to reap benefit from
it. An anecdote of Watt serves not only to prove this, but also his
high-minded philosophy, which was far beyond the miserable vanity
of ordinary inventors, who aim at astonishing their fellows rather
than instructing or benefiting them. After success had elevated
Watt to the public eminence he so deserved, a nobleman who dined
in his company expressed himself in terms of wonder on what Mr.
Watt had accomplished. Watt coolly remarked, “The public look only
on my success, and not on the intermediate failures and uncouth
constructions which have served as steps to climb to the top of the
ladder.”

The power of mechanical conception is very widely extended; it is a
modification of the same power which composes romances. The magic
horse in the fairy tale, which turned and was guided by means of a
pin in the neck, was a mechanical conception. If the same person
who conceived that had worked it out into practice it would have
been an evidence of genius, viz. imagination discovering truth by
analogical inference. Invention, then, of the highest kind must
be composed of four qualities—imagination, to conceive a new and
complicated machine; knowledge, to gather materials; judgment, to
select and combine them; and perseverance without wearying till the
truth be obtained. Those things which commonly go by the name of new
inventions are very often mere modifications of what has been done
before. “Improvements” is the technical term applied to them.

The task a man has to go through in conceiving, designing,
perfecting, and patenting a complicated mechanical invention is by no
means inviting. Even when he possesses the hand to execute what the
head has contrived, only a portion of his difficulties are overcome.
A first idea is fascinating, and apparently easy of execution. It
is thought over again and again; all difficulties are apparently
surmounted and all obstacles removed; it is, in the imagination of
the inventor, perfect. He may, perchance, know how to draw; but if
not, he must employ some one to make his drawings for him. In this
case, to avoid piracy, he must take out a provisional patent. For
this he has to pay some considerable sum, and for a purpose whose
success is uncertain.

Having secured his patent, our inventor sets his draughtsman to
work and the drawings are made. Then follows the model, and ere
that is completed it is discovered that there occur unexpected
difficulties in the material construction which did not present
themselves on paper. New contrivances must be resorted to, and
the model is made and re-made many times over. It is at last
completed, perhaps within a very few days of the time allowed for
depositing the specifications, and fresh expenses are incurred by
the necessity of paying highly those whose business it is to work
against time. When all is ready the specification is deposited, and
the inventor, perhaps, discovers that the title he has first taken
will not cover his invention on account of its being different from
his first contemplation. The title must, therefore, be altered,
and the fees paid over again. He now sets to work to construct a
full-sized sample of his invention, and all his patience is needed.
At length the invention is in a state for practical trial. Up to
this point all seems well; but practice soon discovers a defect, not
in principle, perhaps, but in detail. A second experiment is made
without success; and many more follow ere the invention is completed
alike in principle and execution. Then begins the task of getting it
before the public. Perhaps the inventor has been sanguine, and has
attempted to introduce it to the public in an imperfect state, and
the consequent failures have excited a prejudice unfavourable to his
object. This prejudice has to be overcome by repeated and unceasing
exertions, and at length, perhaps when half the period of the patent
right has expired, the inventor begins to reap the fruits of his
skill and industry. Public rumour is ever fond of exaggeration,
and he is soon supposed to be realising a large fortune, though
most likely he is only beginning to pay his expenses. Competition
is then at work, and rivals who have been at no expense or trouble
imitate his invention, or make just so much alteration in it as they
think necessary to evade his patent right. He goes to law with the
pirates, and then, perhaps, makes the discovery that his title or
specification is imperfect, and that he has been labouring for years
to bring to perfection an invention from which he can reap no more
pecuniary advantage than if he had confined himself to an ordinary
trade in which imitation alone was necessary.

It is evident, therefore, that a man who possesses a good trade as a
coachmaker has little inducement to embark in the perilous field of
invention. His time is mostly taken up with his ordinary business,
and unless under very peculiar circumstances he has little or no
time to study improvements. Those who have too little business to
fill up their time are interested in producing new things in order
to attract public attention. First ideas very often originate with
mechanics and artisans, who have not the means of putting them into
practice, unless in comparatively trifling improvements. Established
tradesmen generally consider it their interest to discourage such
things, as interfering with their plans and giving them more trouble
without extra profit. Thus, when under-springs were first adapted
to carriages, it was prophesied that they would be the ruin of the
coach-making trade, by making carriages too durable. When the streets
were Macadamised, wheelwrights and coachmakers alike complained that
it was destruction to their trade. It is the same in other things.
The Manchester cotton-spinner, who has a mill and machinery already
erected, does not feel very benevolently disposed towards an inventor
who contrives new machinery of a better class, by which he can
underwork him and take away his trade. It may be taken as a general
rule that new inventions are viewed with jealousy by all established
tradesmen, on the ground that they are an individual advantage, and
not in the outset advantageous to the trade in general. Therefore,
they keep them down all in their power, and when they succeed it is
by the circumstance that they are valuable in themselves, and that
the customers of the tradesmen insist on having them.

Sound mechanical knowledge is less necessary to the fashionable
coachmaker than taste. Taste is the one requisite, without which he
cannot thrive, and which therefore constitutes his real business
qualification. Taste is exhibited in form, colour, and proportion,
and having this he can employ other persons to fill up the details.
The general mechanism of carriages does not vary, and the mechanism
serves as a skeleton framework which may be clothed according to
fancy. Therefore, to produce what is commonly called a new carriage
is a work of composition, and not invention. It is a combination
of already existing parts to form a new arrangement. The tasteful
combiner may know nothing of his wheels or axles, or their due
proportion of strength, but he has the wheelwright to take the
responsibility for him. He may know nothing of the construction of
springs, but the spring-maker is at hand ready to calculate the
requisite strength according to an estimated weight; and if the
weight should prove more than was expected it is easy to apply an
extra plate. He gives a general drawing of the framework, and a
skilful workman knows how to apportion the scantling, and build it
strongly together. A skilful smith makes his ornamental ironwork
to a given form, and takes all the responsibility of understanding
and duly working the metal. The employer directs the painter what
portions to put in colours and what in ground colours; what to make
conspicuous and what to hide; what to lighten by lines and what to
leave heavy. The preparation of the colours and the laying of them
on are the work of the painter alone. The enterprising maker also
directs the trimmer as to the general effect of the lining, and
arranges the harmony of the colours; but the trimmer has to study the
best mode of performing his work. The braces and other leather work
are left to the skill of the workman, who is mostly left to select
his own materials and apportion their strength; and the ornamental
metal-work is the province of the plater, who is responsible for
its wear. It is clear, however, that in addition to taste, it is
necessary that the carriage constructor should know how to draw,
in order to effectually direct those whom he employs, and also to
facilitate operations with the purchasers who may employ him to build
for them.

To be a complete carriage constructor a man ought to be familiar
with all the branches before alluded to. But there are few mechanics
of such universal knowledge, and still rarer is it that they combine
such knowledge with taste. Even it would be scarcely possible for
a single individual to carry on a large business and do everything
in his own factory. It would require a very large capital and very
large premises, and also an extensive mercantile knowledge and
skill—which last is based on qualities the direct opposite of those
which nourish the faculty of taste. Mercantile skill depends on
calculation; taste is a combination of imagination and observation.
There are three modes in which carriage-building on a large scale
may be successfully conducted: first, by a single individual whose
only business is to combine parts, and who employs tradesmen for
every separate branch; secondly, by a single individual, who employs
responsible superintendents in every branch at high salaries; and,
thirdly, by a combination of partners, one possessing taste, another
mechanical knowledge, a third mercantile knowledge, and so on. This
last mode would assuredly produce the most certain result, provided
the partners possessed the necessary moral qualities to assure the
absence of suspicion, jealousy, &c., amongst themselves. If these
evil qualities existed they would destroy unanimity, and thus render
the business unproductive by preventing efficient arrangements.

It is probable that at a future time the workmen themselves will
enter into some such combination, but it must be after the lapse
of many years, as the principle of caste must be first eradicated
amongst them, which is at present so fruitful a source of jealousy
amongst the different branches. Ere that takes place the increasing
plenty of capital will probably induce many capitalists to invest
money in carriage-building, as they now do in house-building, giving
shares and salaries to men of undoubted skill and probity in order to
insure efficiency and perseverance.




                            CHAPTER XVI.

  REMARKS ON KEEPING CARRIAGES.


With very few exceptions, it is to be supposed that the greater
number of those who can afford to indulge in the luxury of carriages
are desirous of enjoying them on the most economical terms consistent
with good taste, not merely as an economy of money, but also of time
and convenience.

There are three ways of obtaining the use of carriages: 1. By hiring
them for a short period, as a few days or weeks. 2. By taking them
on lease for a term of years. 3. By purchasing them ready made or
to order. The first two ways are now going out of date as a general
rule. They are, of course, the most expensive. Any one requiring a
conveyance for a few days, or a week or two, had better have a cab;
and as for taking them on lease, well, about four years’ hire-money
would purchase the vehicle outright. So, all things considered, it
would appear the most economical and convenient to purchase the
carriage to start with, and when it is no longer of any use there
will at least be a second-hand carriage to dispose of.

As a rule, carriages are not built to order. The customer either
chooses one from the stock, or selects one very nearly completed and
has it finished to suit his own taste. This, of course, requires a
very large capital to be invested in the business of a coach-builder,
and, as competition has of late years greatly reduced the price of
vehicles without a corresponding reduction in the cost of their
production, the manufacturer naturally desires that his business
should be as nearly as possible a ready-money one, otherwise he will
have to do as many small, and even makers with a fair business, had
to do on the introduction of this system, viz. shut up shop and take
to something else to earn his living by.

People often marvel at the great cost of carriages, but when they
have read of the numberless processes each vehicle has to go through
there will be no longer food for surprise, but wonder that they do
not cost more.

After a carriage is purchased a knowledge of how to preserve it
from the various atmospheric and other influences, and how best to
keep it in good order, is very necessary; for if great care is not
exercised in the housing and cleaning of a vehicle its beauty will be
utterly destroyed. In order to attain this knowledge it is requisite
to remember of what the vehicle is composed—as wood, metal, leather,
hair, cotton, silk, linen, paint, varnish, &c.

The ordinary atmospheric influences of our climate, sun, frost,
dust, rain, and mud, all exercise a deteriorating influence on the
vehicle. The general temperature most congenial to the durability
of the carriage is that of the workshop in which it is constructed.
In atmospheric air containing a certain amount of moisture, wood
possesses a certain standard of bulk. If it be subjected to the
influence of an atmosphere containing a greater amount of moisture
it increases in bulk, or, as it is popularly termed, it swells; in a
drier atmosphere it shrinks and is apt to crack. To resist these evil
influences all the wood used in carriages is well covered with paint,
the surface of which will resist moisture. If this operation is well
and carefully done it is very successful, but woe betide slop-work,
though in no trade is there so little room for a scamping workman to
flourish. The result of bad painting is that moisture sooner or later
finds its way into the wood and spoils the glossy appearance, and
if it be placed in a very dry situation the panels will split, just
as ships’ decks would leak if not wetted several times a day during
the heat of the sun. This might be applied in a modified degree to
carriages, more especially to the wheels.

If due allowance be made for expansion and contraction, the
metal-work of carriages, as springs, suffers very little from heat
or cold, but moisture is apt to work a very destructive influence
upon it, especially where the paint is worn away by friction. There
the rust seizes hold of it and gradually insinuates itself beneath
the whole covering of the paint, which strips off in flakes. Beneath
the surfaces of the spring-plates also rust is continually working
damage, and disfiguring the appearance with dirty brown lines of
oxide of iron on the exterior. Brass and plated work also are
considerably affected by damp.

Leather suffers greatly from heat and damp; but, like timber, more
especially when subjected to alternations of heat and moisture.
Toughness and tenacity are the chief qualities required for leather
for carriages, and these qualities depend chiefly on the presence of
a certain quantity of oil or fatty matter which the leather imbibes
like a sponge. On this matter the oxygen of the air acts strongly,
and at length consumes it; and if it be not renewed the leather
cracks. If the leather be exposed to wet and damp this process is
more rapid, but when the leather is frequently oiled it is apt to
look dull and occasion much trouble to the coachman, who most likely
will prefer blacking it, but the materials of which blacking is
composed tend to the decomposition and destruction of the leather.
Leather which is painted or japanned possesses little or no tenacity,
and is never oiled. The patent grained elastic leather, which is
so very much in use for hoods and knee-flaps, is a very beautiful
substance to the eye, and is quite waterproof so long as it is free
from cracks; but dryness and heat are liable to cause it to crack.
Also, if one portion of the surface be kept in contact with another
portion during warm weather, it is liable to stick and strip away
when pulled apart. When it cracks and water gets in, it decays
rapidly. Generally speaking, it is preferable to use oiled leather
for heads, if ordinary care and attention be bestowed upon it; for
though its durability is not so great, there is a saving of labour in
keeping it tidy, and it has a very good appearance.

The cloth, silk, and lace composing the lining, &c., and used in
combination with wool, hair, cotton, and linen, suffer from the
rays of the sun by losing their rich colours, and from the damp by
becoming mildewed and rotten. Cloth, hair, and wool also suffer from
another cause, viz. moths. In open carriages this is a very serious
evil. Hammercloths are protected by a patent india-rubber cloth being
put over them; cedar shavings also exercise a destructive influence
on moths. The india-rubber cloth is as good as anything where the
smell is not objected to, but this in warm weather is very strong and
unpleasant. However, it would be a very good thing to introduce some
cedar shavings in the stuffing of linings, and this might to some
extent get rid of the troublesome pest.

Simple damp does not cause much damage to paint and varnish unless
it contains saline matter, then it is very destructive; but heat,
especially the strong rays of the sun, is very destructive. The
colours change, and the lustre of the varnish disappears, and a
multitude of intersecting cracks make their appearance; and to
restore the original beauty there is no remedy but repainting.
Another mischievous influence, acting on the paint and varnish,
is the various gaseous vapours to which they are exposed. It is
customary, for the sake of convenience, to stand carriages close to
the horses’ stables, generally in a mews, where large muck heaps are
piled up in all stages of fermentation. During this process various
gases are evolved, which act on the varnish just in the same manner
that strong acids act on metals—by corroding or eating it away. The
most destructive of these is the ammoniacal gas evolved from the
urine.

It is evident that the ordinary coach-house is not the best that
could be used for the purpose. The materials of a carriage are
as delicate, and require as much care, as the furniture of a
drawing-room, and therefore they should be as carefully preserved
from stable contact as the satin couches of the drawing-room. After
the carriage has been out, whether in the sun or rain, it should
be carefully washed, and, above all, dried, taking care to wet the
leather as little as possible during the operation. It is a common
practice to wash the carriage and then leave the water to drip away.
After drying, the leather should be carefully rubbed with an oiled
rag, to restore the oily matter consumed by the vehicle being used.
The carriage should then be placed to stand in a dry, well ventilated
apartment with a boarded floor, leaving a clear passage for the air
beneath it, and if by any means convenient, let a current of warm air
be passed through to insure its dryness. Above all it should be away
from all stables, dung heaps, cesspools, or open drains. A gentleman
should avoid placing his carriage in any situation where he would not
wish to put his wardrobe; and with regard to the interior lining he
should treat it in the same manner. If the carriage be laid by for
a time it should occasionally be brushed out, and have a current of
warm air passed through it. Cedar shavings should also be placed in
it. If an open carriage it will require more care than a close one.
The hammercloth (if there be one) should be covered with a waterproof
india-rubber material, and cedar shavings interposed between the
two. The blacking should also be rubbed off the leather-work, and a
composition of oil and tallow rubbed in to preserve it. The ironwork
should be painted where any bare portions show themselves, caused by
the rubbing of some other part against them.


_Directions for keeping Carriages clean, &c._

_Washing._—When a carriage is much used in the summer season use
water freely, so as to remove dust or mud before using the sponge or
chamois skin. The varnish of a carriage is often ruined through a
want of attention to this matter, for the sharp particles of dust,
which are chiefly silica, when by means of the leather forced over
the surface of the varnish, act like diamonds on glass and score it
in all directions. Mud should not be allowed to dry on the varnish
if it can be avoided. The English varnishes take a long time to dry,
and if mud gets on it before it is perfectly dry a permanent stain is
left, which cannot be removed except by re-varnishing.

In winter time it is not a good thing to wash off the mud when it is
so cold that the water freezes during the operation. _Warm water_
should _never_ be used in winter time, as it is apt to cause the
varnish to crack and peel off.

_Greasing._—For axles and wheel-plates the best lubricating material
is castor oil. It is not necessary to apply a great deal at a
time—little and often should be the rule; for when there is an excess
of oil it oozes out and finds its way on to the stock, and from
thence is thrown over the wheels while the vehicle is in motion. The
grease is then liable to be taken up on to the sponge when washing,
and also on to the leather, which will cause a great deal of trouble
and vexation. The wheel-plate should be particularly looked after,
and not allowed to become dry.

_The Leather._—Enamelled leather should be kept soft and pliable with
sweet oil or sperm oil. It will only be necessary, while the leather
is new, to cleanse the top and curtains from dirt and rub them with a
greased rag. When the leather shows signs of drawing up and becoming
hard and lifeless, wash it with warm water and Castile soap, and with
a stiff brush force the oil into the leather until all the pores are
filled.

_Sponges and Chamois._—Two of each of these should always be kept on
hand, one of each for the body and the same for the under-carriage.
The reason for this is, that after a carriage has been used there is
a liability to get grease on the sponge and chamois after cleaning
the wheels and wheel-plate mechanism. Another reason of some
importance is that the sponges are soon destroyed by being used for
cleaning the under-carriage, which renders them unfit for use for
large panels.

_The Cover._—When a vehicle has been washed and housed, it should be
covered with an enamelled cloth cover, fitted to it so as to keep it
free from dust inside and out. To preserve the wood and save expense
it should be re-painted or varnished once a year. There is no economy
in saving a few shillings this year if such saving will necessitate
an expenditure of three times the amount next year.




                               INDEX.


  Advantages of dishing wheels, 56

  American carriages, 144

  Argand lamp, 100

  Are they competent judges? 158

  Ash timber, 29

  Axle-boxes, 69

  Axles, earliest forms of, 70

    „    conical, 72

    „    Collinge, 73

    „    conditions necessary for perfection in, 76

    „    faggoting, 71

    „    mail, 72

    „    setting, 78

    „    welding steel, 76


  Beading, metal, 99

  Beech, 30

  Birch, American, 31

  Body, parts comprising, 40

    „   its construction, 42

  Bolts, various, 97

  Brake retarders, 52

  Britchka, 14

  Brougham, first, 18

      „     doctor’s, 27

  Buggy, 146


  Cab Phaeton, 18

  Cant-board, 41

  Carriage parts, 48

  Carriage parts, framing together, 50

  Carmine, 108

  Carts in France, 145

  C spring, 86

  Centring square, 59

  Chiaro-oscuro, 104

  Chrome yellow, 107

  Clips, 97

  Coach of Lord Chancellor of Ireland, 12

  Coach operatives, 142

  Colour, principles of, 102

  Colours, 107

  Colouring of the body, 116

      „     carriage parts, 117

  Combustion, principles of, 100

  Complementary colours, 103

  Compound colours, 108

  Constructing a wheel, 57

  Crests, to paint, 127

  Curricle, 14


  Deal, 31

  Difficulty of making light carriage wheels, 60

  Disadvantages in making wheels, 66

  Directions for keeping carriage clean, 183

  Dog-carts, 16

  Door fall, 134

  Double-elbow spring, 87

  Double brougham, 140

  Drawing instruments, 22

  Draught, preparation of, 25

     „     opinions on, 150

  Droitska or Droskey, 18

  Dropping of felloes, 61


  Egyptian chariots, 4

  Egyptians, and introduction of wheels, 3

  Elliptic springs, 87

      „       „     invention of, 13

      „       „     weight of, 89

  Elm, 30


  Faggoting iron axles, 71

  Felloes, number in a wheel, 56

  Felloes, fitting, 60

     „     connecting, 61

  First carriages, 8

     „  coach in England, 9

  Filling up, 112

     „    permanent wood, 113

  Fitting hot iron to woodwork, 45

  Flat tints, 104

  Flying coach, 11

  Fore axletree bed, 51

  Fore-carriage light, 94

        „       with open futchells, 95

        „      for hard service, 95

  Futchells, 51, 92


  Gigs for travellers, 17

  Glue, 46

    „   waterproof, 47

  Grinding colours, 119


  Hackney coaches first used, 19

  Hair, 33

  Hansom cab, 20

  Hardening springs, 83

  Heraldic bearings, to paint, 127

  Hobson’s improvements, 16

  Hoops, 97

  Hides, 31

  Horse litter, 7


  Indian red, 107

  Indian coach-building, 155

  Initial letters, to paint, 125

  Invention, remarks on, 168

  Iron, 33

    „   weight of round, 80

    „      „      square, 81


  Jacks, 98

  Japanners’ gold size, 110

  Joints, 98


  Lamps, 99

  Landaus, 12, 28

  Landaulets, 12, 13

  Landau back, quarter, and fall, 133

  Lancewood, 31

  Leather, laying on, 14

     „     parts, priming, 112

  Length of front and hind axletree, 148

  Leverage power of a wheel, 149

  Lining and trimming, 132

  Locking, the theory of, 91

  Loops, 96


  Machinery, 148

  Mahogany, 30

  Marking out the stuff, 43

  McNeile’s patent wheel, 65

  Materials used in coach-building, 29

  Mathematical instruments, 25

  “Middling” springs, 83

  Monograms, to paint, 123

  Morocco, 32

  Mortises in stock, 58


  Nutcracker spring, 87


  Oak, 30

  Offord’s brougham, 151

  Oil, its use as a lubricant, 74

   „   linseed, 109

  Omnibus, first, 21

  Opposition to coaches, 10

  Origin of word coach, 1

  Ornamental painting, 123

  Oxidation of iron, to prevent, 85


  Painting, 102

  Painting the coach, 110

  Painting the carriage part, 115

  Paint shop, 105

  Panels, to bend, 44

  Persian chariots, 5

  Perches, 52

  Plates, 97

  Pompeian wheels, 6

  Pony phaeton, 17

  Priming, or “slushing,” 110

  Principles of combustion, 100

  Public carriages, 19

  Putting on the tire, 61

  Puttying, 113


  Queen Elizabeth’s coach, 9


  Raw umber, 108

  Remarks on the trade, 142

  Remarks on keeping carriages, 178

  Roman chariots, 5

  Rough stuff, 111

  Rubbing down, 114

  Rust, to guard against, 98


  Sand-papering, 114

  Scythian chariots, 5

  Sedans, 10

  Setting axles, 78

     „    and tempering old springs, 86

  Short and easy turning, 90

  Shackles, 98

  Side-cant, 41

  Single-elbow spring, 87

  Skins, 32

  Skeleton boot, 153

  Slushing, 110

  Solid centre wheel, 65

  Splinter-bar, rule for, 38

  Spokes, driving in, 58

  Springs, various substances used for, 82

     „     their manufacture, 83

     „     hardening, 83

     „     middling, 83

     „     setting, 84

     „     spiral, 85

     „     tempering, 83

  Stanhope, 15

  Stage coaches in 1755, 19

  Stays, 97

  Steel, 34

  Steps, 98

  Straining drawing paper, 23

  Stock, improved form of, 69

  Striping colours, 118

  Sway-bar, 51


  Tandem-carts, 16

  Taste, observations on, 161

  Telegraph spring, 87

  Templates, or patterns, 43

  Tempering springs, 83

  Tenons on spokes, 58

     „        „     opinions on, 59

  Tilbury, 15

  Timber, its seasoning, 39

  Tire, putting on, 61

    „   to take out imperfections in, 64

    „   welding, 63

  Training of apprentices on the Continent, 143

  Treads, 98

  Trimming doors, 135

      „    general directions, 136

  Turn-under, 41


  Ultramarine blue, 108

  Use of cars prohibited, 9


  Varieties of springs, 86

  Varnish, 110

  Varnish, irregularities in, 120

  Varnishing a body, 116

  Verdigris, 108


  Welding tire, 63

  Welding steel axles, 76

  Weight of elliptic springs, 89

     „      round iron, 80

  Weight of square iron, 81

  Wheels, Pompeian, 6

    „     advantages and disadvantages of dishing, 56

    „     to construct, 57

    „     dishing of, 36

    „     early examples, 54

    „     extreme sizes, 55

    „     in seventeenth century, 55

    „     height of, 35

    „     size of hind, 56

  Wheel-plates and fore-carriages, 90

  Whip spring, 86

  Wool, 33


                               THE END.


     PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON.




  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

  Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
  predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they
  were not changed.

  Subsection headers in Chapter XI and XII are formatted inconsistently,
  this has been retained.

  The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
  references.

  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
  and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.

  Pg. 51  “thetr” replaced with “their”
  Pg. 104 “to power the tone” replaced with “to lower the tone”
  Pg. 117 “urpentine” replaced with “turpentine”
  Pg. 129 “vermillion” replaced with “vermilion”






*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON COACH-BUILDING HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ***


    

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.


START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
    other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
    whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
    of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
    at www.gutenberg.org. If you
    are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
    of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
  
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

    • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
        the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method
        you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
        to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has
        agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
        within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
        legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
        payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
        Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
        Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
        Literary Archive Foundation.”
    
    • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
        you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
        does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
        License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
        copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
        all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
        works.
    
    • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
        any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
        electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
        receipt of the work.
    
    • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
        distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
    

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,
Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.